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Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor of GermanyReichstag FireReichstag Fire DecreeFDR became PresidentDachau Camp is CompletedAdolf Hitler becomes a DictatorJapan anounces it will leave The League of NationsThe Law of the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service is PassedThe Children and Young Persons Act is PassedPersecution of Jehovah's Witnesses begins in Nazi GermanyThe Agricultural Adjustment Act is enacted in the United StatesVidkun Quisling and Johan Bernhard Hjort form The Nasjonal SamlingAll non-Nazi parties become forbidden in GermanyIn Nazi Germany, The formation of New political parties are declared forbiddenIn Nazi Germany, The Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring was enactedU.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt unveils the Civil Works AdministrationThe United States and the Soviet Union establish formal diplomatic relationsThe 10-year German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact is signed by Nazi Germany and the Second Polish RepublicManchuria becomes Manchukuo, following an invasion by the JapaneseAdolf Hitler becomes FuherThe Wehrmacht swears a personal oath of loyalty to Adolf HitlerThe Soviet Union joins the League of NationsThe Long March of the People's Liberation Army of the Communist Party of China beginsJapan renounces the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, and the London Naval Treaty of 1930In Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler orders reinstatement of the air force, the Luftwaffe, in violation of the 1919 Treaty of VersaillesAdolf Hitler announces German re-armament in violation of the 1919 Treaty of VersaillesExecutive Order 7034 creates the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in the United StatesIn Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler announces the reintroduction of conscription to the Wehrmacht, in violation of the 1919 Treaty of VersaillesThe Social Security Act is signed into Law in the USThe Nuremburg Laws go into effect in GermanyThe Communist Party of China settles in Shaanxi after the Long MarchThe Lebensrum Program is founded by Heinrich HimmlerMao Zedong issues the Wayaobu ManifestioFebruary 26 IncidentNazi Germany reoccupies the RhinelandThe Tulkarm shootingThe Spanish Coup of July 1936The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 is signedXi'an IncidentSecond inauguration of Franklin D. RooseveltJoseph Stalin's Great Purge begins in the Soviet UnionThe Rome-Berlin Axis is formedFranklin D. Roosevelt is reelected to a second termThe Anti-Comintern Pact is signed by Germany and JapanThe 1936 Soviet Constitution, promulgated by Stalin, is adopted in the Soviet UnionHindenburg disasterThe Coronation of King George VI and Queen ElizabethNeville Chamberlain becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, following the retirement of Stanley BaldwinBattle of Lugou Bridge (aka Marco Polo Bridge Incident)Japan occupies BeijingJapanese troops advance toward Nanking, capital of the Republic of ChinaIn the Reich Chancellery, Adolf Hitler holds a secret meeting and states his plans for acquiring "living space" for the German peopleItaly joins the Anti-Comintern PactItaly withdraws from the League of NationsUSS Panay incidentAdolf Hitler abolishes the War Ministry and creates the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (High Command of the Armed Forces), giving him direct control of the German military.AnschlussItaly's Duce Benito Mussolini is granted equal power over the Italian military to that of King Victor Emmanuel III, as First Marshal of the EmpireÉdouard Daladier becomes prime minister of FranceThe Vatican recognizes Francisco Franco's government in SpainTsuyama massacreThe Mauthausen concentration camp is built in AustriaThe last reunion of the Blue and Gray commemorates the 75th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, in Gettysburg, PennsylvaniaIn the face of overwhelming Japanese military pressure, Chiang Kai-shek withdraws his government to ChungkingMunich AgreementGerman troops march into the SudetenlandNuremberg LawsThe German government expels 12,000 Polish Jews living in Germany; the Polish government accepts 4,000 and refuses admittance to the remaining 8,000, who are forced to live in the no-man's land on the German-Polish frontierKristallnachtPresident Roosevelt agrees to loan $25 million to Chiang Kai-shek, cementing the Sino-American relationship and angering the Japanese governmentAdolf Hitler orders Plan Z, a 5-year naval expansion programme intended to provide for a huge German fleet capable of crushing the Royal Navy by 1944Hungary joins the Anti-Comintern PactBritish Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain states in the House of Commons that any German attack on France will be automatically considered an attack on BritainGerman troops occupy the remaining part of Bohemia and Moravia; Czechoslovakia ceases to exist1939 German ultimatum to LithuaniaNazi Germany is granted the Klaipėda Region (Memel Territory, Memelland) by LithuaniaGerman Forces occupy the territoryFinal offensive of the Spanish Civil War launched by the NationalistsDictator Francisco Franco assumes power in MadridAdolf Hitler orders the German military to start planning for Fall WeißItaly invades Albania; King Zog fleesIn a speech before the Reichstag, Adolf Hitler renounces the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression PactGermany and Italy sign the Pact of SteelTientsin IncidentThe Einstein–Szilárd letter is signedAdolf Hitler, after evaluating the pace of non-aggression negotiations with the Soviet Union, orders the Kriegsmarine to begin the opening operations for Fall WeißThe Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact is signed between Germany and the Soviet UnionPoland begins a mobilization against Nazi GermanyOperation HimmlerThe United Kingdom, France, New Zealand, Australia and India (by its Viceroy) declare war on Nazi GermanyThe Soviet Union invades Poland, and then occupies eastern Polish territoriesOrzeł incidentGeneral Władysław Sikorski becomes Prime Minister of the Polish government-in-exileGermany annexes Western PolandPiotrków Trybunalski Ghetto, the first Jewish ghetto in Nazi-occupied Europe, is proclaimed in German-occupied PolandGerman German submarine U-47 sinks the British battleship HMS Royal Oak at anchor in Scapa Flow (Scotland), with the loss of 833 crewU.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt orders the United States Customs Service to implement the Neutrality Act of 1939, allowing cash-and-carry purchases of weapons to non-belligerent nationsVenlo IncidentAn event later called International Students' DayBritish armed merchantman HMS Rawalpindi is sunk in the GIUK gapShelling of MainilaBattle of the River PlateThe League of Nations expels the USSR for attacking FinlandBattle of the Heligoland BightBattle of Raate RoadBattle of SuomussalmiFood rationing in the United Kingdom beginsMechelen incidentAltmark IncidentKatyn massacreSoviet forces launch a major assault on Finnish troops occupying the Karelian IsthmusMoscow Peace TreatyGerman ships set out for the invasion of NorwayThe British fleet lays naval mines off the coast of neutral NorwayFirst Naval Battle of NarvikSecond Naval Battle of NarvikThe first British ground forces land in Norway, at Namsos and HarstadThe Battle of France beginsGerman forces invade the Low CountriesThe British invasion of Iceland beginsWith the resignation of Neville Chamberlain, Winston Churchill becomes Prime Minister of the United KingdomThe Nazi concentration camp and extermination camp Auschwitz-Birkenau, the largest of the German concentration camps, opens in occupied Poland, near the town of OświęcimThe Dunkirk evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force beginsLe Paradis massacreThe Dunkirk evacuation ends: The British and French navies, together with large numbers of civilian vessels from various nations, complete evacuating 300,000 troops from Dunkirk, France to EnglandWinston Churchill tells the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, "We shall not flag or fail. We shall fight on the beaches... on the landing grounds... in the fields and the streets.... We shall never surrender."King Haakon VII of Norway and his government are evacuated from Tromsø to London, on HMS DevonshirThe British Commandos are createdItaly declares war on France and the United KingdomU.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the Naval Expansion Act into law, which aims to increase the United States Navy's tonnage by 11%Winston Churchill tells the House of Commons of the United Kingdom: "The Battle of France is over. The Battle of Britain is about to begin... if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, This was their finest hourAppeal of 18 JuneThe unsuccessful Italian invasion of France begins with an offensive in the AlpsSecond Armistice at CompiègneVichy France signs armistice terms with ItalyGeneral Charles de Gaulle is officially recognized by Britain as the "Leader of all Free Frenchmen, wherever they may beAttack on Mers-el-KébirBattle of Cape SpadaThe Lithuanian SSR is annexed into the Soviet Union, followed by the Latvian SSR on August 5 and the Estonian SSR August 6, just seven weeks after their occupationThe Adlertag ("Eagle Day") strike on southern England occurs, starting the rapid escalation of the Battle of Britain air offensive of the Luftwaffe against RAF Fighter Command"The Hardest Day" in the Battle of BritainThe first Bombing of Berlin is carried out, by the British Royal Air ForceChad is the first French colony to proclaim its support for the AlliesThe U.S. Army 45th Infantry Division (previously a National Guard Division in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Oklahoma), is activated and ordered into federal service for one year, to engage in a training program in Ft. Sill and Louisiana, prior to serving in WWIINazi Germany begins to rain bombs on London (the first of 57 consecutive nights of strategic bombing)The Italian invasion of Egypt commences from Libya, progressing only as far as Sidi BarraniTreznea MassacreIp MassacreThe Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 is signed into law by Franklin D. RooseveltJapan enters French IndochinaGermany, Italy and Japan sign the Tripartite PactNazi Governor-General Hans Frank establishes the Warsaw GhettoHungary, Romania and Slovakia join the Axis powersBattle of Cape SpartiventoOperation Abigail RachelFranklin D. Roosevelt, in a fireside chat to the nation, declares that the United States must become "the great arsenal of democracyBattle of BardiaPresident of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt presents his Four Freedoms, as fundamental global human rightsThe Lend-Lease Act is introduced into the United States CongressBritish troops attack Italian-held EritreaBattle of TobrukThe United Service Organization (USO) is created to entertain American troopsThe Air Training Corps is formed in the United KingdomBenghazi falls to the Western Desert ForceLieutenant-General Erwin Rommel is appointed commander of Afrika KorpsThe U.S. House of Representatives passes the Lend-Lease ActBulgaria signs the Tripartite Pact, thus joining the Axis powersOperation ClaymoreFranklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United States, signs the Lend-Lease Act into law, providing for the U.S. to provide Lend-Lease aid to the AlliesThe Kingdom of Yugoslavia joins the Axis powers in ViennaYugoslav coup d'état:Japanese spy Takeo Yoshikawa arrives in Honolulu, to study the United States Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, in preparation for a future attackThe 1941 Iraqi coup d'étatAxis forces capture BenghaziGermany invades Yugoslavia and GreeceThe U.S. acquires full military defense rights in GreenlandGerman troops enter BelgradeThe Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact is signedAxis forces reach Halfaya Pass, on the Libyan-Egyptian frontierGerman troops enter AthensGudovac massacreYugoslav General Draža Mihailović and a group of 80 soldiers and officers cross the Drina river in Bosnia and Herzegovina, arrive at Ravna Gora, in western Nazi-occupied Serbia and start fighting with German occupation troopsIn the North Atlantic, German battleship Bismarck sinks battlecruiser HMS Hood, killing all but 3 crewmen, from a total of 1,418 aboard the pride of the Royal NavyGerman battleship Bismarck is sunk in the North Atlantic, killing 2,300. It is eventually found in 1989June DeportationThe German–Turkish Treaty of Friendship is signed between Nazi Germany and Turkey, in AnkaraBetween now and the end of the year, an estimated 190,000-195,000 out of 210,000 Lithuanian Jews will be massacred, killing an estimated 95% of the nation's Jewish populationHungary and Slovakia declare war on the Soviet UnionRainiai massacreAlbania declares war on the Soviet UnionThe British Army's Special Air Service is formedGermany and Italy recognize the Japanese-sponsored Chinese reorganized national government under Wang Jingwei as the legitimate government of ChinaThe Empire of Japan calls up 1 million men for military serviceJoseph Stalin, in his first address since the German invasion, calls upon the Soviet people to carry out a "scorched earth" policy of resistance to the bitter endA massacre of Polish scientists and writers is committed by Nazi German troops, in the occupied Polish city of LwówGerman troops reach the Dnieper RiverAmerican forces take over the defense of Iceland from the BritishJedwabne pogromVichy France signs armistice terms ending all fighting in Syria and LebanonIn response to the Japanese occupation of French Indochina, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt orders the seizure of all Japanese assets in the United StatesGeneral Douglas MacArthur is named commander of all U.S. forces in the Philippines; the Philippines Army is ordered nationalized by President RooseveltUnder instructions from Adolf Hitler, Nazi official Hermann Göring orders S.S. General Reinhard Heydrich to "submit to me as soon as possible a general plan of the administrative material and financial measures necessary for carrying out the desired Final Solution of the Jewish questionFranklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill meet on board ship at Naval Station Argentia, Newfoundland. The Atlantic Charter (released August 14), setting goals for postwar international cooperation, is created as a resultUnits of the Wehrmacht and the Einsatzgruppen (as part of Operation Barbarossa) start killing Jewish children, signalling the start of the Jewish GenocideKamianets-Podilskyi massacreThe Government of National Salvation, a Serb puppet state of the Axis powers, is established by General Milan Nedić in Nazi-occupied Serbia in BelgradeBattle of LoznicaSS-Hauptsturmführer Karl Fritzsch first uses the pesticide Zyklon B, to execute Soviet prisoners of war en masse at Auschwitz concentration camp; eventually it will be used to kill about 1.2 million peopleThe requirement to wear the Star of David, with the word "Jew" inscribed, is extended to all Jews over the age of 6 in German-occupied areasThe Medvedev Forest massacre of political prisoners takes place, at the Oryol Prison in the Soviet UnionThe National Liberation Front (Greece) (the main Greek Resistance movement) is established, and Georgios Siantos is appointed its first acting leaderThe Nazi German Majdanek concentration camp (Konzentrationslager Lublin) opens in occupied Poland, on the outskirts of the town of Lublin. Between October 1941 and July 1944, at least 200,000 people will be killed in the campIn Berdychiv, 20–30,000 Jews are shot deadGermany reaches the Sea of Azov, with the capture of MariupolArmed insurgents from the People's Liberation Army of Macedonia attack Axis-occupied zones in the city of Prilep, beginning the National Liberation War of MacedoniaHeinrich Himmler instructs SS and Police Leader Odilo Globocnik to begin construction of BełżecKragujevac massacreKaunas massacre of October 29, 1941WWII: Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United States, approves US$1 billion in Lend-Lease aid to the Soviet Union1,500 Jews from Pidhaitsi (in western Ukraine) are sent by the Nazis to the Bełżec extermination campThe United States holds peace talks with JapanAs the Battle of Moscow begins, temperatures around Moscow drop to −12 °C, and the Soviet Union launches ski troops for the first time, against the freezing German forces near the cityIn Slonim (Byelorussian SSR), German forces engaged in Operation Barbarossa murder 9,000 JewsBattle between HMAS Sydney and German auxiliary cruiser KormoranHMS Devonshire sinks commerce raiding German auxiliary cruiser AtlantisGermans reach their closest approach to Moscow. They are subsequently frozen by cold weather and stopped by attacks by the SovietsThe Rumbula massacreThe United Kingdom declares war on Finland, Hungary and RomaniaSoviet counterattacks begin against German troops encircling Moscow. The Heer is subsequently pushed back over 200 mi (320 km)Attack on Pearl HarborThe Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire is published in Japanese evening newspapers, Canada declares war on JapanAdolf Hitler makes his Nacht und Nebel decree, declaring that all political prisoners and those involved in both German resistance to Nazism and resistance to Nazism throughout German-occupied Europe are to be apprehended by the Gestapo, Sicherheitsdienst and other security forces under Heinrich Himmler's controlThe Japanese Invade Shanghai International Settlement, to occupy the British and the American sectors, after the attack on Pearl HarborThe Japanese invasion of the Philippines begins 10 hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, when Japanese forces invade Luzon and destroy U.S. aircraft on Clark FieldPresident of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt delivers his "Infamy Speech" to a Joint session of the United States Congress at 12:30 p.m. EST (17.30 GMT). Transmitted live over all four major national networks, it attracts the largest audience ever for an American radio broadcast, over 81% of homes.[27] Within an hour, Congress agrees to the President's request for a United States declaration of war upon Japan, and he signs it at 4:10 p.mAustralia, New Zealand, The Netherlands, the Free French, Yugoslavia, Costa Rica, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras also officially declare war on Japan, and the Republic of China declares war on the Axis powersJapanese forces attack British Malaya and ThailandThe German advance on Moscow (Operation Typhoon) is suspended for the winterThe Nazi German Chełmno extermination camp opens in occupied Poland, near the village of Chełmno nad NeremThe first mass gassing of Jews begins at the Chełmno extermination camp on December 8, 1941, when the Nazis use gas vans to murder people from the Lodz ghettoGermany and Italy declare war on the United States. The U.S. responds in kindHungary and Romania declare war on the United StatesBritish India declares war on the Empire of JapanThe United States seizes the French ship SS NormandieThe Battle of Cape BonAt Drobytsky Yar, 15,000 Jews are shot dead by German troopsHitler becomes Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Nazi ArmyRaid on AlexandriaThe Arcadia Conference opens in Washington, D.C.British forces capture BenghaziAdmiral Émile Muselier seizes the archipelago of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the first part of France to be liberated by the Free French ForcesThe Declaration by United Nations is signed by China, the United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union and 22 other nations, in which they agree "not to make any separate peace with the Axis powersJapan declares war on the Netherlands and invades the Dutch East IndiesJapanese forces invade BurmaNazis at the Wannsee Conference in Berlin decide that the "Final Solution (Endlösung) to the Jewish problem" is deportations to extermination campsThe Battle of Rabaul beginsUnited States Maritime Commission fleet operations are transferred to the War Shipping Administration (lasting until September 1, 1946)The Imperial Japanese Army begins the systematic extermination of perceived hostile elements among Chinese SingaporeansBombing of DarwinUnited States President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066, allowing the United States military to define areas as exclusionary zonesGeneral George Marshall transmits a direct order to General MacArthur in President Roosevelt's name, ordering MacArthur himself to turn over command of the Philippines to a subordinate, and report to Australia to assume command of the large American force being built up thereBattle of the Java SeaYugoslav Partisans, operating in Nazi-occupied Serbia, assassinate Đorđe Kosmajac in Belgrade.Douglas MacArthur's escape from the PhilippinesDünamünde ActionThe Nazi German Bełżec extermination camp opens in occupied PolandFranklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United States, signs Executive Order 9102, creating the War Relocation Authority (WRA), which becomes responsible for the internment of Americans of Japanese and, to a lesser extent, German and Italian descent, many of them legal citizensSecond Battle of SirteThe Germans burn down the Ukrainian village of Yelino (Koriukivka Raion), killing 296 civiliansBombing of Lübeckthe Nazi German extermination camp Sobibór opens in occupied Poland77 Uzbek prisoners of war held at Amersfoort concentration camp in the occupied Netherlands are shot by Nazi German guards, 24 of their compatriots having previously died there as a result of forced starvationJapanese forces begin the last phase of the Battle of Bataan, an all-out assault on the United States and Filipino troops on the Bataan PeninsulaEaster Sunday RaidThe Bataan Peninsula falls, and the Bataan Death March beginsThe Bataan Death MarchConstruction of the Nazi German extermination camp Treblinka II commences in occupied Poland near the village of TreblinkaDoolittle RaidThe Anglo-Soviet Treaty of 1942, to help establish a military and political alliance between the USSR and the British Empire, is signed in London by foreign Secretary Anthony Eden and Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav MolotovOperation AnthropoidMexico declares war on Germany, Italy and JapanThe United States declares war on Bulgaria, Hungary & RomaniaJapanese forces invade the Aleutian Islands (the first invasion of American soil in 128 years)The Australian cities of Sydney and Newcastle are shelled by Japanese submarines. The eastern suburbs of both cities are damaged, and the east coast is blacked outNazis burn the Czech village of Lidice, in reprisal for the killing of Reinhard HeydrichThe Gestapo massacres 173 male residents of Lidice, Czechoslovakia in retaliation for the killing of Reinhard HeydrichOn her 13th birthday, Anne Frank makes the first entry in her new diaryThe SS surrounds the church where Jan Kubiš and Jozef Gabčík, the assassins of Reinhard Heydrich, are hiding. Kubiš is fatally wounded in the ensuing shootout, and Gabčík commits suicide to avoid captureThe German Eleventh Army under Erich von Manstein takes Sevastopol, although fighting rages until July 9Inmates of Westerbork transit camp in the occupied Netherlands begin to be shipped to Nazi extermination campsAnne Frank's family goes into hiding in an attic above her father's office in an Amsterdam warehouseThe United States Eighth Air Force inauspiciously flies its first mission in Europe, using borrowed British planes, and bombs targets in the Netherlands, such as De Kooy Airfield, attached to the Den Helder Naval BaseOn Bastille Day, Gaullist demonstrations in Vichy France; 2 women are shot dead by members of the fascist French Popular Party (PPF) in MarseilleBy order of the Vichy France government headed by Pierre Laval, French police officers round-up 13,000–20,000 Jews and imprison them in the Winter VelodromeGerman Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the last U-boats to withdraw from their United States Atlantic coast positions, in response to an effective American convoy system.The systematic deportation of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto beginsThe gas chambers at Treblinka extermination camp begin operation, killing 6,500 Jews newly arrived from the Warsaw GhettoWAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service), the United States Naval Reserve (Women's Reserve), is signed into lawOperation LeticaPolish-Jewish teacher Janusz Korczak follows a group of Jewish children into the Treblinka extermination campDieppe RaidBattle of the TenaruCharge of the Savoia Cavalleria at IsbuscenskijA German attempt to liquidate the Jewish Łachwa Ghetto in occupied Poland leads to an uprising, probably the first ghetto uprising of the warThe Jews of Wolbrom in occupied Poland are rounded up by the Germans and their Ukrainian collaborators. What was once a flourishing community suddenly ceases to existA Japanese floatplane drops incendiary devices at Mount Emily, near Brookings, Oregon, in the first of two "Lookout Air Raids", the first bombing of the continental United StatesThe Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS) begins operation in the United StatesThe Women's Flying Training Detachment (WFTD) is established in the United StatesNazi official August Frank issues the August Frank memorandum, setting out how the belongings of "evacuated" (i.e. murdered) Jews are to be disposed ofThird Battle of the Matanikau on GuadalcanalGerman forces under Erwin Rommel are forced to retreat during the nightBattle of Madagascar ends when Vichy French forces on Madagascar sign an armistice with the AlliesFrench Resistance Coup in AlgiersIn violation of a 1940 armistice, Germany invades Vichy France, following French Admiral François Darlan's agreement to an armistice with the Allies in North AfricaAviators from the USS Enterprise sink the Japanese battleship HieiBritish forces capture TobrukBritish forces capture Derna, LibyaBritish forces capture BenghaziBattle of TassafarongaManhattan ProjectStary Ciepielów and Rekówka massacreThe Polish government-in-exile sends copies of The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland, including Raczyński's Note, the first official report on The Holocaust, to 26 governments who signed the Declaration by United NationsThe Allies issue the Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations (as the answer to Raczyński's Note), the first time they publicly acknowledge the HolocaustThe Soviet Union announces that 22 German divisions have been encircled at Stalingrad, with 175,000 killed and 137,650 capturedOperation KeIraq declares war on the Axis powersThe first Warsaw Ghetto Uprising begins: several days engagement with the Germans limits the number of Jews deported at this timeBritish forces capture Tripoli from the ItaliansIn Russia, the Battle of Stalingrad comes to an end, with the surrender of the German 6th ArmyThe Guadalcanal Campaign in the Solomon Islands ends with United States forces in command of Guadalcanal, the evacuation of Japanese forces in Operation Ke having been completed two days earlierMassacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army begin, with the Parośla I massacre within the Reichskommissariat UkraineRue Sainte-Catherine RoundupNazi German forces liquidate the Jews of the Kraków Ghetto, in Occupied PolandGerman forces recapture Kharkov after four days of house-to-house fighting against Soviet troops, ending the month-long Third Battle of KharkovKhatyn massacreBattle of the Komandorski IslandsGerman Afrika Korps and Italian troops in North Africa surrender to Allied forcesThe Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ends. 13,000 Jews have been killed in the ghetto and almost all the remaining 50,000 residents are deported to Majdanek and Treblinka extermination campsJedwabne pogromUnited States Army forces make an assault on Piano Lupo, just outside Gela, SicilyBattle of ProkhorovkaRome is bombed by the Allies, for the first time in the warOperation GomorrhaOperation Tidal WaveThe Seventh U.S. Army, under General George S. Patton, meets the Eighth British Army under Field Marshal B. L. Montgomery in Messina, Sicily, completing the Allied invasion of SicilyThe Battle of Kursk ends, with a strategic defeat for the German forcesArmistice of CassibileOperation BaytownThe 503rd Parachute Regiment (under American General Douglas MacArthur) lands and occupies Nadzab, just east of the port city of Lae, in northeastern Papua New GuineaUnited States General Dwight D. Eisenhower publicly announces the surrender of Italy to the AlliesGran Sasso raidThe Italian Social Republic ("Republic of Salò") is founded in northern Italy as a puppet state of Nazi GermanyUnited States forces enter liberated NaplesThe Lyngiades massacreThe Battle of Vella LavellaDouble Tenth incidentOperation JaywickSecond Raid on SchweinfurtUprising in Sobibór extermination camp; about half the inmates escape. Three days later, the camp is closedRaid of the Ghetto of RomeLucie Aubrac and others in her French Resistance cell liberate Raymond Aubrac from Gestapo imprisonmentThe British Royal Air Force delivers a highly destructive airstrike on the German industrial and population center of Kassel; at least 10,000 are killed and 150,000 are made homelessSigning of Moscow DeclarationsUnited States Marines land on Bougainville Island in the Solomon IslandsFirst Bombing of the VaticanThe British Royal Air Force opens its bombing campaign against Berlin with 440 planes, causing only light damage and killing 131. The RAF loses 9 aircraft and 53 aviatorsInmates of Janowska concentration camp, near Lwów (at this time in German-occupied Poland), stage a failed uprising, after which the SS liquidates the camp, resulting in at least 6,000 deathsTehran ConferenceIn Yugoslavia, resistance leader Marshal Tito proclaims a provisional democratic Yugoslav government-in-exileMassacre of KalavrytaU.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower becomes Supreme Allied Commander Europe. He establishes the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force in LondonBattle of the North CapeFree French General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny is appointed to command French Army B, part of the Sixth United States Army Group in North AfricaLanding at SaidorPhilippine Commonwealth troops enter the province of Ilocos Sur in northern Luzon, and attack Japanese forcesThe Nazi German administration expands Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp into the larger standalone Konzentrationslager Plaszow bei KrakauSoviet troops start the offensive at Leningrad and NovgorodThe 27th Polish Home Army Infantry Division is re-created, marking the start of Operation Tempest by the Polish Home ArmyThe two-year Siege of Leningrad is liftedKoniuchy massacreUnited States troops land in the Marshall IslandsUnited States troops capture the Marshall IslandsU.S. forces secure the last islands in the Eniwetok AtollOperation MargaretheLanding on EmirauMembers of the Italian Resistance attack Nazis marching in Via Rasella, killing 33Ardeatine massacreIn Markowa, Poland, German police kill Józef and Wiktoria Ulm, their 6 children and 8 Jews they were hidingThe "Great Escape"Ascq massacreRudolf Vrba and Alfréd Wetzler escape from Auschwitz concentration camp; on April 25–27 they prepare the Vrba–Wetzler report, one of the earliest and most detailed descriptions of the extermination of Jews in the campAllied forces start bombing Belgrade, killing about 1,100 people. This bombing fell on the Orthodox Christian EasterAmerican and British planes bomb the city of RouenGerman General Kreipe is kidnapped on Crete, GreeceTwo hundred Communist prisoners are shot by the Germans at Kaisariani, Athens, Greece, in reprisal for the killing of General Franz Krech by Partisans at MolaoiPredominantly Muslim Albanian troops of the 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg (1st Albanian) round up 281 Jews in Pristina, and hand them over to the Germans for transportation to Bergen-Belsen concentration campSoviet troops finalize the liberation of the CrimeaThe Germans evacuate Monte Cassino, and Allied forces, led by Władysław Anders from Polish II Corps, take the stronghold after a struggle that has claimed 20,000 livesThe Provisional Government of the French Republic is establishedRome falls to the Allies, the first Axis capital to fallThe BBC transmits coded messages including the second line of the Paul Verlaine poem "Chanson d'automne" to the French Resistance, indicating that the invasion of Europe is about to beginMore than 1,000 British bombers drop 5,000 tons of bombs on German gun batteries on the Normandy coast, in preparation for D-DayUS and British airborne divisions drop into Normandy, in preparation for D-DayD-Day naval deceptions are launchedThe Normandy LandingsBayeux is liberated by British troopsOradour-sur-Glane massacreUnited States forces land on SaipanA general attack by Soviet forces clears the German forces from Belarus, resulting in the destruction of German Army Group Centre, possibly the greatest defeat of the Wehrmacht during WWIIThe Battle of Kohima ends in a British victoryThe Bombardment of CherbourgAmerican troops enter CherbourgSoviet troops liberate MinskJapanese forces call off their advance, ending the battle with a British victoryBritish and Canadian forces capture CaenSoviet troops begin operations to liberate the Baltic countriesAmerican forces push back the Germans in Saint-Lô, capturing the city20 July plotA tip from a Dutch informer leads the Gestapo to a sealed-off area in an Amsterdam warehouse, where they find Jewish diarist Anne Frank, her family, and others in hiding. All will die in the Holocaust, except for Otto Frank, Anne's fatherPolish insurgents liberate a German labor camp in Warsaw, freeing 348 Jewish prisonersThe Cowra breakoutThe Allies capture Florence, ItalyAmerican forces successfully defeat Nazi forces at Chambois, closing the Falaise PocketThe Dumbarton Oaks ConferenceHolocaust of KedrosKing Michael's CoupPadule di Fucecchio massacreThe Allies enter Paris, successfully completing Operation OverlordGeneral Dietrich von Choltitz surrenders Paris to the Allies, in defiance of Hitler's orders to destroy itMaillé massacreThe Slovak National Uprising against the Axis powers beginsDiarist Anne Frank and her family are placed on the last transport train from Westerbork to Auschwitz concentration camp, arriving 3 days laterThe Allies liberate BrusselsThe British 11th Armoured Division liberates the city of Antwerp, BelgiumThe Tartu Offensive in Estonia concludes, with Soviet forces capturing TartuThe Shinyō Maru incidentLiberation of LuxembourgAllied forces from Operation Overlord (in northern France) and Operation Dragoon (in the south) link up near Dijon.An armistice between Finland and the Soviet Union is signed, ending the Continuation WarThe Red Army captures Tallinn, Estonia. Prime Minister in Duties of the President of Estonia Jüri Uluots and 80,000 Estonian civilians manage to escape to Sweden and Germany. The evacuees include almost the entire population of the Estonian Swedes. Soviet bombing raids on the evacuating ships sink several, with thousands on boardOperation Market Garden ends in an Allied withdrawal.Nazi troops end the Warsaw Uprising. This is followed by the Destruction of WarsawMilan Nedić's collaborationist puppet government of the Axis powers, the Government of National Salvation in Nazi-occupied Serbia, is disbandedMembers of the Sonderkommando (Jewish work units) in Auschwitz concentration camp stage a revolt, killing 3 SS men before being massacred themselves800 Romani children are systematically murdered at the Auschwitz concentration camp10-10 Air RaidThe Allies land in AthensRiga, the capital of Latvia, is taken by the Red ArmyAmerican and Filipino troops (with Filipino guerrillas) begin the Battle of Leyte in the PhilippinesOperation Pheasant begins - an offensive in the Netherlands which supports the ongoing Battle of the ScheldtAachen, the first German city to fall, is captured by American troopsThe Allies recognise Charles de Gaulle's cabinet as the provisional government of FranceThe Red Army liberates Kirkenes, the first town in Norway to be liberatedPadule di Fucecchio massacreGerman forces capture Banská Bystrica, the center of anti-Nazi opposition in Slovakia, bringing the Slovak National Uprising to an endAnne Frank and her sister Margot are deported from Auschwitz to the Bergen-Belsen concentration campOperation CatechismU.S. forces begin the month-long Operation Queen in the Rur ValleyGerman forces evacuate from the West Estonian ArchipelagoOperation TigerfishUnited States, Australian and Philippine Commonwealth troops land on Mindoro Island in the PhilippinesGermany begins the Ardennes offensive, later known as the Battle of the BulgeMalmedy massacreBombing of UlmBande massacreAmerican troops repulse German forces at BastogneThe Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine continues; the United States Army crosses the Siegfried LineOperation BodenplatteChenogne massacreA German offensive recaptures Esztergom, Hungary from the RussiansThe Soviet Union begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive in Eastern Europe, against the German ArmyThe Soviet Union begins the East Prussian Offensive, to eliminate German forces in East PrussiaThe Soviet Union occupies Warsaw, PolandSwedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg, who has saved thousands of Jews, is taken into custody by a Soviet patrol during the Siege of Budapest and is never again seen publiclyThe SS begins the evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp. Nearly 60,000 prisoners, mostly Jews, are forced to march to other locations in Germany; as many as 15,000 die. The 7,000 too sick to move are left without supplies being distributedGermany begins the Evacuation of East PrussiaHungary agrees to an armistice with the AlliesThe Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration campsRaid at CabanatuanAnne Frank dies of typhus in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, Gau Eastern Hanover, Prussia, GermanyUnited States forces enter the outskirts of Manila to capture it from the Japanese Imperial Army, starting the battle. On February 4, U.S. Army forces liberate Santo Tomas Internment Camp in the cityThe Budapest Offensive and the Siege of Budapest end with Nazi troops surrendering Budapest (Hungary) to Soviet-Romanian forcesThe Bombing of Wesel begins, destroying 97% of the town over three daysAmerican and Filipino ground forces land on Corregidor Island in the PhilippinesCombined American and Filipino forces recapture the Bataan PeninsulaAbout 30,000 United States Marines land on Iwo JimaThe Battle of Monte Castello ends, after nearly three months of fighting, Brazilian troops expel German forces from a pivot point in the (Tuscan) North Apennines, where their artillery was impeding the advance of Eighth British Army toward BolognaA group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Suribachi on the island, and are photographed raising the American flag. The photo, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (taken by Joe Rosenthal), later wins a Pulitzer PrizeThe capital of the Philippines, Manila, is liberated by combined American and Filipino ground troopsBombing of PforzheimThe Bombing of Mainz results in 1,209 confirmed dead; 80% of the city is destroyedFinland declares war on the Axis powersUnited States and Filipino troops take Manila, PhilippinesThe Pawłokoma massacreThe Bombing of the BezuidenhoutIn the United Kingdom, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), joins the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) as a truck driver/mechanicAmerican troops seize the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine at Remagen, Germany and begin to cross; in the next 10 days, 25,000 troops with equipment are able to crossNazi authorities kill 117 Dutch men, in reprisal for the attempted murder of Hanns Albin RauterSwinemünde is destroyed by the USAAF, killing an estimated 8,000 to 23,000 civilians, mostly refugees saved by Operation HannibalThe Bombing of WürzburgBritish troops liberate Mandalay, BurmaOperation VarsityThe Battle of Iwo Jima officially ends, with the destruction of the remaining areas of Japanese resistanceThe Red Army almost destroys the German 4th Army, in the Heiligenbeil Pocket in East PrussiaThe Red Army pushes most of the Axis forces out of Hungary into AustriaThe Tenth United States Army lands on OkinawaAmerican troops liberate their first Nazi concentration camp, Ohrdruf extermination camp in GermanyThe Red Army enters Bratislava and pushes to the outskirts of Vienna, taking it on April 13, after several days of intense fightingSarajevo is liberated from Nazi Germany and the Independent State of Croatia (a fascist puppet state), by Yugoslav PartisansOperation Ten-GoThe SS begins to evacuate the Buchenwald concentration camp; inmates in the Buchenwald Resistance call for American aid, and overpower and kill the remaining guardsVisoko is liberated by the 7th, 9th and 17th Krajina Brigades from the Tenth Division of Yugoslav Partisan forcesBuchenwald concentration camp is liberated by the United States ArmyPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt dies suddenly at Warm Springs, GeorgiaThe Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated by British and Canadian forcesThe Canadian First Army reaches the coast in the northern Netherlands, and captures ArnhemDeath marches from Flossenbürg concentration camp beginBrazilian forces liberate the town of Montese, Italy, from German forcesElbe DayBenito Mussolini and his mistress, Clara Petacci, are executed by Italian partisans as they attempt to flee the country. Their bodies are then hung by their heels in the public square of Milan Piazzale LoretoThe Canadian First Army captures Emden and WilhelmshavenDachau concentration camp is surrendered to U.S. forces, who kill SS guards at the camp and the nearby hamlet of WeblingBrazilian forces liberate the commune of Fornovo di Taro, Italy, from German forcesAdolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun, in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker, and signs his last will and testamentDeath of Adolf HitlerJoseph Goebbels and his wife Magda commit suicide, after killing their six childrenMass suicide in DemminThe Soviet Union announces the fall of Berlin. Soviet soldiers hoist the Red flag over the Reich ChancelleryLübeck is liberated by the British ArmyA Holocaust death march from Dachau to the Austrian border is halted under two kilometers west of Waakirchen by the segregated, all-Nisei 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of the U.S. Army in southern Bavaria, saving several hundred prisonersNeuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg is evacuated at about this dateAll German armed forces in northwest Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands surrender unconditionally to Field Marshal Bernard MontgomeryThe Netherlands is liberated by British and Canadian troopsEbensee concentration camp in Austria is liberated by troops of the 80th Division (United StatesGeneral Alfred Jodl signs the unconditional German Instrument of Surrender in SHAEF HQ at Reims, France, to end Germany's participation in the warVictory in Europe DayShortly before midnight (May 9 Moscow time) the final German Instrument of Surrender is signed at the seat of the Soviet Military Administration in Berlin-Karlshorst, attended by Allied representativesThe Soviet Union marks VE DaySurrender at BleiburgThe British take over Lebanon and SyriaThe Allied Control Council, the military occupation governing body of Germany, formally takes powerKing Haakon VII of Norway returns to NorwayThe Battle of Okinawa ends, with U.S. occupation of the island until 1972A victory parade is held in Red Square in MoscowThe United Nations Charter is signedGermany is divided between the Allied occupation forcesThe Philippines are declared liberatedItaly declares war on JapanThe Trinity Test, the first of an atomic bomb, using about six kilograms of plutonium, succeeds in unleashing an explosion equivalent to that of 22 kilotons of TNTPresident Harry S. Truman approves the order for atomic bombs to be used against JapanBombing of AomoriAtomic bombing of HiroshimaThe Soviet Union declares war on JapanAtomic bombing of NagasakiThe Soviet Union begins its army offensive against Japan, in the northern part of the Japanese-held Chinese region of ManchuriaJapan offers to surrender to the Allies, "provided this does not prejudice the sovereignty of the EmperorThe Allies reply to the Japanese surrender offer, by saying that Emperor Hirohito will be subject to the authority of the Supreme Commander of the Allied ForcesEmperor Hirohito accepts the terms of the Potsdam Declaration. His recorded announcement of this is smuggled out of the Tokyo Imperial Palace. At 19:00 hrs in Washington, D.C. (23:00 GMT), U.S. President Harry S. Truman announces the Japanese surrenderThe August RevolutionMao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek meet in Chongqing to discuss an end to hostilities between the Communists and the NationalistsWorld War 2 ends, As The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur, and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz for the United StatesJapanese forces surrender on Wake Island, after hearing word of their country's surrenderU.S. troops occupy southern Korea, while the Soviet Union occupies the north, with the dividing line being the 38th parallel of latitudeChiang Kai-shek officially accepts the Japanese capitulation at NankingThe Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak, Borneo is liberated by Australian forcesThe Japanese Army formally surrenders to the British in SingaporeThe Japanese Army in Central China officially surrenders to the Chinese, in WuhanThe Nazi Party is officially dissolved by the Allied PowersThe United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter, by 29 nationsJapanese armed forces in Taiwan surrender to the AlliesThe undivided country of India joins the United NationsColombia joins the United NationsAn offensive is begun in Manchuria by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists) against further infiltration by the Communist Party of China.Charles de Gaulle is unanimously elected president of France by the provisional governmentThe Nuremberg trials beginCommunist demonstrations in Athens presage the Greek Civil WarThe United States Senate approves the entry of the United States into the United Nations by a vote of 65–7American General George S. Patton dies from injuries sustained in a car accident on December 9 in GermanySodder children disappearanceTwenty-eight nations sign an agreement creating the World BankThe first meeting of the United Nations is held, at Methodist Central Hall Westminster in LondonEnver Hoxha declares the People's Republic of Albania, with himself as prime ministerThe United Nations Security Council holds its first session, at Church House, Westminster in LondonGeneral Douglas MacArthur establishes the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo, to try Japanese war criminalsQazi Muhammad declares the independent people's Republic of Mahabad, at the Chahar Cheragh Square in the Kurdish city of Mahabad. He is the new president, Haji Baba Sheikh is the prime ministerTrygve Lie of Norway is selected, as the first United Nations Secretary-GeneralThe Kingdom of Hungary becomes a republic, heavily influenced by the Soviet UnionHo Chi Minh is elected President of North VietnamHo Chi Minh signs an agreement with France, which recognizes Vietnam as an autonomous state in the Indochinese Federation and the French UnionBritish troops begin withdrawing from LebanonJapanese Lt. General Masaharu Homma is executed outside Manila in the Philippines, for leading the Bataan Death MarchThe League of Nations, in its last meeting, transfers its mission to the United Nations and disbands itselfThe United States recognizes Josip Broz Tito's government in YugoslaviaTrials against war criminals begin in Tokyo; the accused include Hideki Tōjō, Shigenori Tōgō and Hiroshi ŌshimaKing Victor Emmanuel III of Italy abdicates, and is succeeded by his son Umberto IIThe Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan is foundedIon Antonescu, prime minister and "Conducator" (Leader) of Romania during World War II, is executedItaly is declared a republicOperation CrossroadsThe King David Hotel bombingDirect Action DayThe Kurdistan Democratic Party is founded in South KurdistanBulgaria is declared a People's Republic after a referendum; King Simeon II leavesGeorge II of Greece returns to AthensCommunists take over in BulgariaThe Noakhali genocide of Hindus in Bengal begins, at the hands of Muslim mobsHermann Göring, founder of the Gestapo and recently convicted Nazi war criminal, poisons himself two hours before his scheduled executionThe remaining ten Nazi war criminals sentenced to death at the Nuremberg trials are executed by hanging, in a gymnasium in the Palace of Justice, NurembergUNESCO is established, as a specialized agency of the United NationsAfghanistan, Iceland and Sweden join the United NationsThe Workers' Party of South Korea is foundedUNICEF (the United Nations Children's Emergency Fund) is foundedIranian troops recapture the Azerbaijan provinceIranian troops recapture the Kurdish Republic of MahabadSiam joins the United Nations (changes its name to Thailand in 1949)Viet Minh forces begin a war against French occupying forces in Vietnam, succeeding in 1954 with France's surrender at the Battle of Dien Bien PhuPresident Harry S. Truman delivers Proclamation 2714, which officially ends hostilities in World War IIThe Communists take power in PolandIn Paris, France, peace treaties are signed between the World War II Allies and Italy, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and FinlandThe German state of Prussia is officially abolished, by the Allied Control CouncilThe Truman Doctrine is proclaimed, to help stem the spread of CommunismThe leaders of the Kurdish People's Republic of Mahabad, the second Kurdish state in the history of Iran, are hanged at Chuwarchira Square in MahabadThe Journey of Reconciliation begins, organized by the Congress of Racial EqualityAmerican financier and presidential adviser Bernard Baruch describes the post–World War II tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States as a "Cold War"The Portella della Ginestra massacreThe Cold War beginsFerenc Nagy, the democratically-elected Prime Minister of Hungary, is forced into resign and go exile under pressure from the Soviet-backed Hungarian Communist Party led by Mátyás RákosiAlcide de Gasperi forms a new government in Italy, the first postwar Italian government to not include members of the Italian Communist PartyU.S. Secretary of State George Marshall outlines the Marshall Plan for American reconstruction and relief aid to Europe, in a speech at Harvard UniversityThe Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank is published for the first time as Het Achterhuis: Dagboekbrieven 14 juni 1942 – 1 augustus 1944 ("The Annex: Diary Notes from 14 June 1942 – 1 August 1944") in Amsterdam, two years after the writer's death in Bergen-Belsen concentration campU.S. President Harry S. Truman signs the National Security Act of 1947 into law, creating the Central Intelligence Agency, the Department of Defense, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the National Security CouncilThe greater Indian subcontinent, with a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Jews and others formed by the Partition of India, gains independence from the British Empire, as the Dominion of IndiaIn Greece, General Markos Vafiadis takes over the government until 1949In Hungary, communists fail to gain a majority in parliamentary elections (despite widespread fraud) and turn to direct action as part of the country's transition to Communism (1944–1949)The National Security Act of 1947 becomes effective on this day, creating the United States Air Force, National Security Council and the Central Intelligence AgencyPakistan and Yemen join the United NationsA war begins in Kashmir, along the border between India and Pakistan, leading to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 in the following year. Also, Pakistan establishes diplomatic relations with the United States of AmericaGreat Britain begins withdrawing its troops from PalestinePrincess Elizabeth (later Elizabeth II), the daughter of George VI, marries The Duke of Edinburgh at Westminster Abbey in London, United KingdomThe United States House of Representatives votes 346–17 to approve citations of Contempt of Congress against the "Hollywood Ten"The United Nations General Assembly votes to partition Palestine between Arab and Jewish regions, which results in the creation of the State of IsraelThe last Soviet troops withdraw from North KoreaSeven Japanese military and political leaders, convicted of war crimes by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, are executed by Allied occupation authorities, at Sugamo Prison in Tokyo, JapanA United Nations-sponsored ceasefire brings an end to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947Forces from the Communist Party of China enter BeijingThe media in the Soviet Union resume a savage propaganda campaign against "rootless cosmopolitans", a euphemism for Soviet Jews, accusing them of being pro-Western and antisocialistThe Revolutionary Communist Party of India stages attacks at Dum DumThe North Atlantic Treaty is signed in Washington, D.C., creating the NATO defense allianceThe Iranian Royal Army takes back power, in the Azerbaijan provinceThe Constitution of the Italian Republic goes into effectBurma gains its independence from the United Kingdom, becoming an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President, and U Nu its first Prime MinisterThe Pakistan Socialist Party is founded in KarachiIndian pacifist and leader Mahatma Gandhi is shot by Nathuram Godse in New Delhi1948 Czechoslovak coup d'étatThe 2nd Congress of the Communist Party of India convenes in CalcuttaThe Costa Rican Civil War beginsThe Treaty of Brussels is signed by Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, providing for economic, social and cultural collaboration and collective self-defenceUnited States President Harry S. Truman signs the Marshall Plan, which authorizes $5 billion in aid for 16 countriesThe World Health Organization is established by the United NationsBurma joins the United NationsThe Israeli Declaration of Independence is made. David Ben-Gurion becomes the first prime ministerThe British Mandate of Palestine is officially terminated; expeditionary forces from Egypt, Transjordan, Syria and Iraq invade Israel, and clash with Israeli forcesThe first Legislative Yuan of the Republic of China officially convenes in NankingThe Deutsche Mark becomes the official currency of the future Federal Republic of GermanyThe Berlin Blockade beginsThe first World Health Assembly of the World Health Organization is held in GenevaThe Cominform Resolution marks the beginning of the Informbiro period in Yugoslavia, and the Soviet/Yugoslav splitPresident Harry S. Truman issues the second peacetime military draft in the United States, amid increasing tensions with the Soviet Union (the first peacetime draft occurred in 1940 under President Roosevelt)U.S. President Truman signs Executive Order 9981, ending racial segregation in the United States Armed ForcesThe southern half of Korea is established as the Republic of Korea (South Korea)The northern half of Korea is formally declared the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), with Kim Il-sung as prime ministerAl-Dawayima massacreSafsaf massacreIn Tokyo, an international war crimes tribunal sentences seven Japanese military and government officials to death, including General Hideki Tojo, for their roles in World War IIOperation Magic CarpetThe United Nations General Assembly adopts the Genocide ConventionThe United Nations General Assembly adopts the Universal Declaration of Human RightsThe North Atlantic Treaty Organization is establishedThe Kuomintang regime declares Taiwan under martial law, which lasts until 1987The Federal Republic of Germany is establishedSecond Red Scare in the United StatesThe Soviet Union tests its first atomic bomb, RDS-1 ("Joe 1")The retreat of the Greek Democratic Army to Albania, after its defeat at Mount Grammos, marks the end of the Greek Civil WarU.S. President Harry S. Truman announces that the Soviet Union has tested the atomic bombThe People's Republic of China is officially proclaimedThe Soviet Union recognizes the People's Republic of ChinaThe German Democratic Republic (East Germany) is officially establishedGreek Civil War ends with a communist surrenderChinese communist troops take GuangzhouThe government of the Republic of China finishes its evacuation to Taiwan, and declares Taipei its temporary capital cityBurma recognises the People's Republic of ChinaQueen Juliana of the Netherlands grants Indonesia sovereigntyIndia recognizes the People's Republic of ChinaThe UK recognizes the People's Republic of China; the Republic of China severs diplomatic relations with Britain in responseFinland forms diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of ChinaKlaus Fuchs, German émigré and physicist, confesses to an MI5 interrogator that he is a Soviet spyUnited States President Harry S. Truman orders the development of the hydrogen bomb, in response to the detonation of the Soviet Union's first atomic bomb in 1949The last Kuomintang troops surrender in mainland ChinaChiang Kai-shek is re-elected as president of the Republic of ChinaThe Stasi is founded in East Germany, and acts as a secret police until 1990In his speech to the Republican Women's Club at the McClure Hotel in Wheeling, West Virginia, Senator Joseph McCarthy accuses the United States Department of State of being filled with 205 CommunistsThe Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China sign a mutual defense treaty (later terminated in 1979)The U.S. Army begins to deploy anti-aircraft cannons, to protect nuclear stations and military targetsChiang Kai-shek resumes his duties as Chinese president, after moving his government to Taipei, TaiwanBritain formally recognises IsraelNSC 68 is issued by the United States National Security Council, advocating the development of the hydrogen bomb, increased military aid to America's allies, and the rollback of communist expansionThe Korean War beginsNorth Korean forces capture Seoul, but do not win the warHangang Bridge bombingSeoul National University Hospital massacreBodo League massacre beginsThe Suppression of Communism Act (passed on June 26) comes into force in South AfricaBloody Gulch massacreHill 303 massacreAllied troops commanded by Douglas MacArthur land in Inchon, occupied by North Korea, to begin a U.N. counteroffensiveThe Defense Production Act is enacted into law in the United States, shaping American military contracting for the next 60 yearsIndonesia is admitted to the United NationsThe Goyang Geumjeong Cave massacre begins in South KoreaThe People's Republic of China enters the conflict, by sending thousands of soldiers across the Yalu RiverIn East Germany, the Communists win 99.7% of the voteThe Jayuya UprisingWhile in an F-80, United States Air Force Lt. Russell J. Brown intercepts 2 North Korean MiG-15s near the Yalu River and shoots them down, in the first jet-to-jet dogfight in historyTroops from the People's Republic of China launch a massive counterattack against South Korean and United Nations forces at the Ch'ongch'on River and the Chosin Reservoir, dashing any hopes for a quick end to the conflictDouglas MacArthur threatens to use nuclear weapons in KoreaThe Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River ends, with the Chinese People's Volunteer Army expelling UN forces from North KoreaChinese and North Korean forces capture Seoul for the second time (they had lost Seoul in the Second Battle of Seoul in September 1950)In a court in West Germany, Ilse Koch, The "Witch of Buchenwald", wife of the commandant of the Buchenwald concentration camp, is sentenced to life imprisonmentThe Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution, limiting Presidents to two terms, is ratifiedThe United Nations General Assembly declares that China is an aggressor in the Korean War, in United Nations General Assembly Resolution 498For the second time, United Nations troops recapture SeoulWest Germany joins UNESCOU.S. President Harry S. Truman relieves General Douglas MacArthur of his Far Eastern commandsOperation GreenhouseThe Tibetan government signs the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet, with the People's Republic of ChinaArmistice negotiations begin at KaesongThe United States, Australia and New Zealand all sign a mutual defense pact, the ANZUS TreatyTreaty of San FranciscoThe Japan-U.S. Security Treaty, which allows United States Armed Forces to be stationed in Japan after the occupation of Japan, is signed by Japan and the United StatesChinese Communist forces move into Lhasa, the capital of TibetNATO accepts Greece and Turkey as membersCommunist insurgents kill British commander Sir Henry GurneyU.S. President Harry Truman declares an official end to war with GermanyThe first military exercises for nuclear war, with infantry troops included, are held in the Nevada desertThe Marshall Plan expires, after distributing more than $13.3 billion US in foreign aid to rebuild EuropeGeorge VI (King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions: Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon) dies aged 56, after a long illnessElizabeth II is proclaimed Queen of the United Kingdom at St James's Palace, London, EnglandThe funeral of George VI takes place at St George's Chapel, Windsor CastleGreece and Turkey join the North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationThe United States Senate ratifies a peace treaty with JapanWest Ice accidentsBattle of Nanri IslandWest Germany and Japan form diplomatic relationsThe Treaty of San Francisco goes into effect, formally ending the war between Japan and the Allies, and simultaneously ending the occupation of the four main Japanese islands by the Supreme Commander for the Allied PowersDiplomatic relations are established between Israel and Japan at the level of legationsAnne Frank's The Diary of a Young Girl is published in English-language translationThe European Coal and Steel Community is establishedEast Germany announces the formation of its National People's ArmyThe Treaty of Taipei between Japan and the Republic of China goes into effect, to officially end the Second Sino-Japanese WarNight of the Murdered PoetsJapan joins the IMFWest Germany joins the IMF and the World BankThe United Nations cedes Eritrea to EthiopiaThe United Nations begins work in the new United Nations building in New York City, designed by Le Corbusier and Oscar NiemeyerRepublican General Dwight D. Eisenhower defeats Democratic Governor of Illinois Adlai Stevenson (correctly predicted by the UNIVAC computer)Operation IvyU.S. President-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower fulfills a political campaign promise, by traveling to Korea to find out what can be done to end the conflictUnited States President Harry S. Truman announces the United States has developed a hydrogen bombDoctors' plot"Dwight D. Eisenhower is sworn in, as the 34th President of the United StatesWalter Ulbricht announces that agriculture will be collectivized in East GermanyBatepá massacreGreece, Turkey, and Yugoslavia sign the Balkan PactJoseph Stalin suffers a stroke, after an all-night dinner with Soviet Union interior minister Lavrentiy Beria and future premiers Georgi Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin, and Nikita Khrushchev. The stroke paralyzes the right side of his body and renders him unconscious, until his death on March 5Georgy Maksimilianovich Malenkov succeeds Joseph Stalin, as Premier and First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet UnionNikita Khrushchev is selected First Secretary of the Soviet Communist PartyElizabeth II is crowned queen of the United Kingdom, at Westminster AbbeyThe European Economic Community (EEC) holds its first assembly in Strasbourg, FranceFidel Castro and his brother lead a disastrous assault on the Moncada Barracks, preliminary to the Cuban RevolutionThe Korean War ends, with the Korean Armistice Agreement: The United Nations Command (Korea) (United States), People's Republic of China and North Korea sign an armistice agreement at Panmunjom, and the north remains communist, while the south remains capitalistOperation Big SwitchThe United Nations rejects the Soviet Union's suggestion to accept the People's Republic of China as a memberThe Pact of Madrid is signed by Francoist Spain and the United States of America, ending a period of virtual isolation for SpainU.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower formally approves the top secret document of the United States National Security Council NSC 162/2, which states that the United States' arsenal of nuclear weapons must be maintained and expanded to counter the communist threatThe Laotian Civil War begins between the Kingdom of Laos and the Pathet Lao, all the while resuming the First Indochina War against the French Army in a Two-front warOpération CastorFrench paratroopers consolidate their position at Điện Biên PhủThe Amami Islands are returned to Japan, after 8 years of United States military occupationIn Vietnam, the Viet Minh capture the main airstrip of Dien Bien Phu. The remaining French Army units there are partially isolatedThe Soviet Union recognises the sovereignty of East Germany. Soviet troops remain in the countryThe U.S. Congress and President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorize the founding of the United States Air Force Academy in ColoradoVladimir Petrov defects from the Soviet Union, and asks for political asylum in AustraliaDwight D. Eisenhower gives his "Domino Theory" speech, during a news conferenceSenator Joseph McCarthy begins hearings, investigating the United States Army for being "soft" on CommunismThe Battle of Dien Bien Phu ends in a French defeatBrown v. Board of Education (347 US 483 1954): The U.S. Supreme Court rules unanimously that segregated schools are unconstitutionalChiang Kai-shek is re-elected as the president of the Republic of China, by the National AssemblyThe Geneva Conference sends French forces to the south, and Vietnamese forces to the north, of a ceasefire line, and calls for elections to decide the government for all of Vietnam by July 1956. Failure to abide by the terms of the agreement leads to the establishment of the de facto regimes of North Vietnam and South Vietnam, and the Vietnam WarThe First Indochina War ends with the Vietnam People's Army in North Vietnam, the Vietnamese National Army in South Vietnam, the Kingdom of Cambodia in Cambodia, and the Kingdom of Laos in Laos, emerging victorious against the French ArmyThe SEATO treaty is signed in Manila, PhilippinesThe Viet Minh takes control of North Vietnam.West Germany joins NATOParis Agreement sets up the Western European Union to implement the Treaty of Brussels (1948), providing for mutual self-defence and other collaboration between Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United KingdomThe Algerian National Liberation Front begins a revolt against French ruleThe Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union announces the end of the war between the USSR and Germany, which began during World War II in 1941The United States Seventh Fleet helps the Republic of China evacuate the Chinese Nationalist army and residents from the Tachen Islands to TaiwanU.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower sends the first U.S. advisors to South VietnamThe Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) is established, at a meeting in BangkokWest Germany joins the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)Eight Communist Bloc countries, including the Soviet Union, sign a mutual defence treaty in Warsaw, Poland, that is called the Warsaw Pact (it will be dissolved in 1991)The first Geneva Summit meeting between the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France begins. It ends on July 23The First Sudanese Civil War beginsBlack 14-year-old Emmett Till is lynched and shot in the head for allegedly grabbing and threatening a white woman in Money, Mississippi; his white murderers, Roy Bryant and J. W. Milam, are acquitted by an all-white juryNgô Đình Diệm proclaims Vietnam to be a republic, with himself as its President (following the State of Vietnam referendum on October 23), and forms the Army of the Republic of VietnamThe Vietnam War begins between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and Republic of Vietnam; the north is allied with the Viet CongRacial segregation is outlawed on trains and buses in interstate commerce in the United StatesIn Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks refuses to obey bus driver James F. Blake's order that she give up her seat to make room for a white passenger, and is arrested, leading to the Montgomery bus boycottThe Montgomery Improvement Association is formed in Montgomery, Alabama, by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and other Black ministers to coordinate the Montgomery bus boycott by Black peopleAlbania, Austria, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Laos, Libya, Nepal, Portugal, Romania, Spain, and Sri Lanka join the United Nations simultaneously, after several years of moratorium on admitting new members that began during the Korean WarBritish spies Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean resurface in the Soviet Union, after being missing for 5 yearsNikita Khrushchev attacks the veneration of Joseph Stalin, in a speech "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences", at a secret session concluding the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union96 U.S. Congressmen sign the Southern Manifesto, a protest against the 1954 Supreme Court ruling (Brown v. Board of Education) that desegregated public educationPresident Dwight D. Eisenhower signs the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, creating the Interstate Highway System in the United StatesWest Germany bans the Communist Party of GermanyFinland joins UNESCOThe Khan Yunis massacreThe United States Supreme Court declares illegal the state and municipal laws requiring segregated buses in Montgomery, Alabama, thus ending the Montgomery bus boycottJapan becomes a member of the United NationsThe Saarland joins West GermanyThe Treaty of Rome (Patto di Roma) establishes the European Economic Community (EEC; predecessor of the European Union) between Italy, France, West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and LuxembourgThe Communist Party of India wins the elections in Kerala, making E. M. S. Namboodiripad its first chief ministerThe May 24 incidentThe International Atomic Energy Agency is establishedThe Federation of Malaya gains independence from the United Kingdom, subsequently celebrated as Malaysia's National DayGovernor Orval Faubus of Arkansas calls out the National Guard of the United States, to prevent African-American students from enrolling in Little Rock Central High SchoolU.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower sends federal troops to Arkansas, to provide safe passage into Little Rock Central High School for the "Little Rock Nine"The Soviet Union launches Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite to orbit the earthThe Soviet Union launches Sputnik 2, with the first animal to orbit the Earth (a dog named Laika) on board; there is no technology available to return it to EarthIn the United States, the Gaither Report calls for more American missiles and fallout sheltersThe European Economic Community (EEC) comes into beingBattle of Hayes PondThe United States launches the Vanguard 1 satelliteNikita Khrushchev becomes Premier of the Soviet UnionThe United States Army launches Explorer 3Castro's revolutionary army begins its attacks on HavanaThe Soviet Union launches Sputnik 3Imre Nagy and other leaders of the failed Hungarian Revolution of 1956 are hanged for treason, following secret trials1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement signed in Washington, D.CUnited States President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs the Alaska Statehood Act into lawThe 14 July RevolutionElizabeth II gives her son and heir apparent The Prince Charles the customary title of Prince of WalesThe U.S. Congress formally creates the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)The U.S.S.R. performs a nuclear test at Novaya ZemlyaThe new Constitution of France is signed into law, establishing the French Fifth RepublicThe Great Chinese Famine beginsPioneer 1, the second and most successful of the 3 project Able space probes, becomes the first spacecraft launched by the newly formed NASAThe United States launches SCORE, the world's first communications satelliteGeneral Charles de Gaulle is elected president of France with 78.5% of the votesThe Guatemalan Air Force fires on Mexican fishing boats which had strayed into Guatemalan territory, triggering the Mexico–Guatemala conflictFulgencio Batista flees Havana when the forces of Fidel Castro advanceThe Soviet Union successfully launches the Luna 1 spacecraft from Baikonur CosmodromeAlaska is admitted as the 49th U.S. stateIn Cuba, rebel troops led by Che Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos enter the city of HavanaThe United States recognizes the new Cuban government of Fidel CastroThe Soviet government recognizes the new Castro governmentThe European Court of Human Rights is establishedFidel Castro becomes Premier of CubaVanguard 2, the first weather satellite, is launched to measure cloud cover for the United States NavyAmerican President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs the Hawaii Admission Act, granting statehood to HawaiiCrown Prince Akihito of Japan marries Shōda Michiko, the first commoner to marry into the Imperial House of JapanNational People's Congress elects Liu Shaoqi as Chairman of the People's Republic of China, as a successor of Mao ZedongBritish Empire Day is renamed Commonwealth DayJupiter AM-18 rocket launches two primates, Miss Baker and Miss Able, into space from Cape Canaveral in the United States along with living microorganisms and plant seedsA 3-front invasion of the Dominican Republic by exile forces backed by Fidel Castro and Venezuela attempt to overthrow Rafael TrujilloElizabeth II (Queen of Canada) and United States President Dwight Eisenhower open the Saint Lawrence SeawayWith the admission of Alaska as the 49th U.S. state earlier in the year, the 49-star flag of the United States debuts in PhiladelphiaAt the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow, United States Vice President Richard Nixon and USSR Premier Nikita Khrushchev engage in the "Kitchen Debate"Hawaii is admitted as the 50th U.S. stateFirst large unit action of the Vietnam War takes place, when two companies of the ARVN's 23rd Division are ambushed by a well-organized Viet Cong force of several hundred, identified as the "2nd Liberation Battalion"Soviet Union leader Nikita Khrushchev meets Mao Zedong in BeijingThe 10th anniversary of the People's Republic of China is celebrated with pomp across the countryThe U.S.S.R. probe Luna 3 sends back the first ever photos of the far side of the MoonIn Rwanda, Hutu politician Dominique Mbonyumutwa is beaten up by Tutsi forces, leading to a period of violence known as the wind of destructionThe Declaration of the Rights of the Child is adopted by the United NationsAntarctic TreatyThe Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan is signed in Washington, D.CIn Greensboro, North Carolina, four black students from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University begin a sit-in at a segregated Woolworth's lunch counter. Although they are refused service, they are allowed to stay at the counter. The event triggers many similar non-violent protests throughout the Southern United States, and six months later, the original four protesters are served lunch at the same counterThe United States announces that 3,500 American soldiers will be sent to VietnamThe United States launches the first weather satellite, TIROS-1The United States launches navigation satellite Transit I-bThe April Revolution1960 U-2 incidentThe European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is establishedUnited States President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs the Civil Rights Act of 1960 into lawThe U.S. nuclear-powered submarine USS Triton, under the command of Captain Edward L. Beach Jr., completes the first underwater circumnavigation of the Earth (codenamed Operation Sandblast)The satellite Sputnik 4 is launched into orbit by the Soviet UnionSoviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev demands an apology from President Dwight D. Eisenhower for the U-2 reconnaissance plane flights over the Soviet Union, thus aborting the summit meeting scheduled for Paris in 1960King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand arrives in Washington, D.C. for a 4-day royal visit to the U.S.A Soviet Air Force MiG-19 fighter plane flying north of Murmansk, Russia, over the Barents Sea, shoots down a six-man RB-47 Stratojet reconnaissance plane of the U.S. Air Force. Four of the U.S. Air Force officers are killed, and the two survivors are held prisoner in the Soviet UnionFollowing the admission of the State of Hawaii as the 50th state in August 1959, the new (and current) 50-star Flag of the United States is first officially flown over PhiladelphiaMoise Tshombe declares the Congolese province of Katanga independent. He requests and receives help from BelgiumThe United Nations Security Council decides to send troops to Katanga, to oversee the withdrawal of Belgian troopsThe Woolworth Company's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, the location of a sit-in that has sparked demonstrations by Negroes across the Southern United States, serves a meal to its first black customerIn response to a United States embargo against Cuba, Fidel Castro nationalizes all American and foreign-owned property in CubaThe Soviet Union launches the satellite Sputnik 5, with the dogs Belka and Strelka (the Russian for "Squirrel" and "Little Arrow"), 40 mice, two rats and a variety of plants. This satellite returns to earth the next day and all animals are recovered safelyNigeria becomes the 99th member of the United NationsSoviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev pounds his shoe on a table at a meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, his way of protesting the discussion of the Soviet Union's policies toward Eastern EuropeRobert F. Kennedy telephones Coretta Scott King, the wife of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and secures King's release from jail for a traffic violation in AtlantaIn a close race, Democratic U. S. Senator John F. Kennedy is elected over Republican U. S. Vice President Richard Nixon, to become (at 43) the second youngest man to serve as President of the United States, and the youngest man elected to this positionThe Supreme Court of the United States upholds a lower Federal Court ruling that the State of Louisiana's racial segregation laws are unconstitutional, and overturns themSecretary of State Christian Herter announces that the United States will commit five nuclear submarines and eighty Polaris missiles to the defense of the NATO countries,1 010by the end of 1963United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower announces that the United States has severed diplomatic and consular relations with CubaJohn F. Kennedy is sworn in as the 35th President of the United StatesPresident Dwight Eisenhower gives his final State of the Union Address to Congress. In a Farewell Address the same day, he warns of the increasing power of a "military–industrial complex."The Portuguese Colonial War begins in AngolaThe USSR launches Venera 1 towards VenusUnited States President John F. Kennedy proposes a long-term "Alliance for Progress", between the United States and Latin AmericaCyprus joins the Commonwealth of Nations, becoming the first small country in the CommonwealthSouth Africa announces it will withdraw from the Commonwealth of Nations, upon becoming a republic (31 May). The nation rejoins the organization in 1994A ceasefire takes effect, in the Algerian War of IndependenceSoviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human in space, orbiting the Earth once before parachuting to the groundThe Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba begins; it fails by April 19Fidel Castro announces that the Bay of Pigs Invasion has been defeatedU.S. Freedom Riders begin interstate bus rides, to test the new U.S. Supreme Court integration decisionAlan Shepard becomes the first American in space, aboard Mercury-Redstone 3A Freedom Riders bus is fire-bombed near Anniston, Alabama, and the civil rights protestors are beaten by an angry mob of Ku Klux Klan membersThe May 16 military coup d'étatAlabama Governor John Patterson declares martial law in an attempt to restore order, after race riots break outFreedom Riders are arrested in Jackson, Mississippi for "disturbing the peace", after disembarking from their busPresident Kennedy announces, before a special joint session of Congress, his goal to put a man on the Moon before the end of the decadeThe Vienna SummitU.S. President John F. Kennedy sends 18,000 military advisors to South VietnamThe Rebellion of the PilotsThe World Food Programme (WFP) is formed as a temporary United Nations programIn a nationally broadcast speech, Cuban leader Fidel Castro announces he is a Marxist–Leninist, and that Cuba will adopt socialismAmerican involvement in the Vietnam War officially begins, as the first American helicopters arrive in Saigon, along with 400 U.S. personnelThe United States Navy SEALs, elite special forces, are activated. Navy Seal 1 is commissioned in the Pacific Fleet, and SEAL Team Two in the Atlantic FleetCuba and the Soviet Union sign a trade pactThe Organization of American States suspends Cuba's membership; the suspension is lifted in 2009 (47 years later)The United States embargo against Cuba is announcedThe Antarctic Treaty comes into effectVirgil I. Grissom, piloting the Mercury-Redstone 4 spacecraft Liberty Bell 7, becomes the second American to go into space (sub-orbital). After splashdown, the hatch prematurely opens, and the spacecraft sinks (it is recovered in 1999)U.S. President John F. Kennedy gives a widely watched TV speech on the Berlin crisis, warning "we will not be driven out of Berlin." Kennedy urges Americans to build fallout shelters, setting off a four-month debate on civil defenseSoviet cosmonaut Gherman Titov becomes the second human to orbit the Earth, and the first to be in outer space for more than one dayConstruction of the Berlin Wall begins, restricting movement between East Berlin and West Berlin, and forming a clear boundary between West Germany and East Germany, Western Europe and Eastern Europe. On August 22 Ida Siekmann jumps from a window in her tenement building trying to flee to the West, becoming the first of at least 138 people to die at the WallThe Eritrean War of Independence officially begins, with the shooting of the Ethiopian police by Hamid Idris AwateThe Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is formed to replace the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC)Mongolia and Mauritania join the United NationsConfrontation at Checkpoint CharlieThe Soviet Union detonates a 58-megaton yield hydrogen bomb known as Tsar Bomba, over Novaya Zemlya (it remains the largest ever man-made explosion)Stalingrad is renamed VolgogradThe United States embargo against Cuba comes into effect, prohibiting all U.S.-related Cuban imports and exportsCaptured American spy pilot Francis Gary Powers is exchanged for captured Soviet spy Rudolf Abel, in BerlinWhile aboard Friendship 7, John Glenn becomes the first American to orbit the Earth, three times in 4 hours, 55 minutesThe Évian AccordsA Cuban military tribunal convicts 1,179 Bay of Pigs attackersTwelve East Germans escape via a tunnel, under the Berlin WallThe June 1962 Alcatraz EscapeEast German border guards kill 18-year-old Peter Fechter, as he attempts to cross the Berlin Wall into West BerlinNASA launches the Mariner 2 space probeThe Soviet Union agrees to send arms to CubaA border conflict between China and India erupts into fightingThe North Yemen Civil War eruptsThe first black student, James Meredith, registers at the University of Mississippi, escorted by Federal MarshalsAlgeria is accepted into the United NationsA U-2 flight over Cuba in the Caribbean photographs Soviet nuclear weapons being installed. A stand-off then ensues for another 12 days, after President Kennedy is told of the pictures, between the United States and the Soviet Union, threatening the world with nuclear warIn a televised address, U.S. President John F. Kennedy announces to the nation the existence of Soviet missiles in CubaThe first confrontation occurs between the U.S. Navy and a Soviet cargo vessel; the vessel changes courseSoviet Union leader Nikita Khrushchev announces that he has ordered the removal of Soviet missile bases in Cuba. In a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev, Kennedy agrees to the withdrawal of U.S. missiles from Turkey. The fact that this deal is not made public makes it look as though the Soviets have backed downThe Soviets begin dismantling their missiles in CubaThe United Nations General Assembly passes a resolution condemning South Africa's racist apartheid policies and calls for all UN member states to cease military and economic relations with the nationIn response to the Soviet Union agreeing to remove its missiles from Cuba, President John F. Kennedy ends the blockade of the islandThe West Berlin branch of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany forms a separate party, the Socialist Unity Party of West BerlinAfter a trip to Vietnam at the request of U.S. President John F. Kennedy, U.S. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield becomes the first American official to make a pessimistic public comment on the war's progressThe North Kalimantan National Army revolts in Brunei, in the first stirrings of the Indonesian ConfrontationCuba releases the last 1,113 participants in the Bay of Pigs Invasion to the U.S., in exchange for food worth $53 millionThe Viet Cong win their first major victory in the Battle of Ap BacGeorge Wallace becomes governor of Alabama. In his inaugural speech, he defiantly proclaims "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, and segregation forever!Black student Harvey Gantt enters Clemson University in South Carolina, the last U.S. state to hold out against racial desegregationTravel, financial and commercial transactions by United States citizens to Cuba are made illegal by the John F. Kennedy AdministrationThe Central Intelligence Agency's Domestic Operations Division is created in the United StatesSouthern Christian Leadership Conference volunteers kick off the Birmingham campaign (Birmingham, Alabama) against racial segregation in the United States with a sit-inYugoslavia is proclaimed to be a socialist republic, and Josip Broz Tito is named President for LifeMartin Luther King Jr., Ralph Abernathy, Fred Shuttlesworth and others are arrested in a Birmingham, Alabama protest for "parading without a permit"British statesman Sir Winston Churchill becomes an honorary citizen of the United StatesMartin Luther King, Jr. issues his "Letter from Birmingham Jail"The Huế Phật Đản shootingsKuwait becomes the 111th member of the United NationsFidel Castro visits the Soviet UnionThe Huế chemical attacksIn Saigon, Buddhist monk Thích Quảng Đức commits self-immolation to protest the oppression of Buddhists by the Ngô Đình Diệm administrationAlabama Governor George Wallace stands in the door of the University of Alabama to protest against integration, before stepping aside and allowing black students James Hood and Vivian Malone to enrollPresident John F. Kennedy broadcasts a historic Civil Rights Address in which he promises a Civil Rights Bill and asks for "the kind of equality of treatment that we would want for ourselves"Medgar Evers is murdered in Jackson, Mississippi. (His killer, Byron De La Beckwith, will be convicted in 1994.)Vostok 6 carries Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman into spaceValentina Tereshkova the first woman in space, returns to Earth, landing in the Soviet UnionEstablishment of the Moscow–Washington hotline (officially, the Direct Communications Link or DCL; unofficially, the "red telephone"; and in fact a teleprinter link) is authorized by signing of a Memorandum of Understanding in Geneva by representatives of the Soviet Union and the United StatesJohn F. Kennedy gives his "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech in West Berlin, GermanyNASA launches Syncom 2, the world's first geostationary (synchronous) satelliteThe United States, United Kingdom and Soviet Union sign the Partial Nuclear Test Ban TreatyJames Meredith becomes the first black person to graduate from the University of MississippiThe Xá Lợi Pagoda RaidsMartin Luther King Jr. delivers his "I Have a Dream" speech on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial to an audience of at least 250,000, during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. It is, at that point, the single largest protest in American historyThe 16th Street Baptist Church BombingThe United States Senate ratifies the Partial Nuclear Test Ban TreatyThe 1963 Honduran coup d'étatMalcolm X makes an historic speech in Detroit, Michigan ("Message to the Grass Roots")Assassination of John F. KennedyLee Harvey Oswald, assassin of John F. Kennedy, is shot dead by Jack Ruby in Dallas, an event seen on live national televisionNew U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson confirms that the United States intends to continue supporting South Vietnam militarily and economicallyThe state funeral of John F. KennedyThe Sino-Indian War ends with a Chinese ceasefireThe Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials beginIn his first State of the Union Address, U.S. President Lyndon Johnson declares a "War on Poverty"The Zanzibar RevolutionThirteen years after its proposal and nearly two years after its passage by the United States Senate, the 24th Amendment to the United States Constitution, prohibiting the use of poll taxes in national elections, is ratifiedThe Soviet Union launches two scientific satellites, Elektron I and II, from a single rocketRanger 6 is launched by NASA, on a mission to carry television cameras and crash-land on the MoonProtesting against alleged de facto school racial segregation, Black and Puerto Rican groups in New York City boycott public schools.The Government of the United States authorizes the Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, outlawing the poll taxCuba cuts off the normal water supply to the United States Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, in reprisal for the U.S. seizure 4 days earlier of 4 Cuban fishing boats off the coast of FloridaMalcolm X, suspended from the Nation of Islam, says in New York City that he is forming a black nationalist partyBoxer Cassius Clay announces the change of his name to Muhammad Ali1964 Moscow ProtestThe precursor of the European Space Agency, ESRO (European Space Research Organization) is established per an agreement signed on June 14, 1962Malcolm X delivers a speech entitled "The Ballot or the Bullet"U.S. President Lyndon Johnson in New York, and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in Moscow, simultaneously announce plans to cut back production of materials for making nuclear weaponsHenry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore, hitchhiking in Meadville, Mississippi, are kidnapped, beaten, murdered by members of the Ku Klux KlanTwelve young men in New York City publicly burn their draft cards to protest the Vietnam War; the first such act of war resistanceThe United States State Department says that more than forty hidden microphones have been found embedded in the walls of the U.S. Embassy in MoscowMurders of Chaney, Goodman, and SchwernerPresident Lyndon Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law, officially abolishing racial segregation in the United StatesAt a rally in Saigon, South Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyễn Khánh calls for expanding the war into North VietnamViet Cong forces attack a provincial capital, killing 11 South Vietnamese military personnel and 40 civilians (30 of which are children)The U.S. sends 5,000 more military advisers to South Vietnam, bringing the total number of United States forces in Vietnam to 21,000Ranger 7 sends back the first close-up photographs of the Moon (images are 1,000 times clearer than anything ever seen from Earth-bound telescopes)United States destroyer Maddox is attacked in the Gulf of Tonkin. Air support from the carrier USS Ticonderoga sinks one gunboat, while the other two leave the battleOperation Pierce ArrowThe United States Congress passes the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, giving U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson broad war powers to deal with North Vietnamese attacks on U.S. forcesIn a coup, General Nguyễn Khánh replaces Dương Văn Minh as South Vietnam's chief of state and establishes a new constitution, drafted partly by the U.S. EmbassyThe Mozambican War of Independence is launched by FRELIMOTwenty-three men and thirty-one women escape to West Berlin through a narrow tunnel under the Berlin WallThe Soviet Union launches Voskhod 1 into Earth orbit as the first spacecraft with a multi-person crew and the first flight without space suits. The flight is cut short and lands again on October 13 after 16 orbitsAmerican civil rights movement leader Martin Luther King Jr. becomes the youngest recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, which is awarded to him for leading non-violent resistance to end racial prejudice in the United StatesMortar fire from North Vietnamese forces rains on the Bien Hoa Air Base, killing four U.S. servicemen, wounding 72, and destroying five B-57 jet bombers and other planesUnited States National Security Council members, including Robert McNamara, Dean Rusk, and Maxwell Taylor, agree to recommend a plan for a 2-stage escalation of bombing in North Vietnam, to President Lyndon B. JohnsonU.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson and his top-ranking advisers meet to discuss plans to bomb North Vietnam (after some debate, they agree on a 2-phase bombing plan)Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo, NorwaySam Cooke, African American singer-songwriter (b. 1931), is shot and killed at a motel in Los Angeles, CaliforniaHeart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (379 US 241 1964)1964 Brinks Hotel bombingUnited Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) established as a permanent organ of the UN General AssemblyU.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson proclaims his "Great Society" during his State of the Union addressThe state funeral of Sir Winston Churchill takes place in London with the largest assembly of statesmen in the world until the 2005 funeral of Pope John Paul IIAfrican-American Muslim minister and human rights activist Malcolm X is assassinated in New York CityThe United States Air Force 2nd Air Division, United States Navy and South Vietnamese air force begin a 3½-year aerial bombardment campaign against North VietnamBloody SundaySome 3,500 United States Marines arrive in Da Nang, South Vietnam, becoming the first American ground combat troops in VietnamThe second attempt to march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, under the leadership of Martin Luther King, Jr., stops at the bridge that was the site of Bloody Sunday, to hold a prayer service and return to Selma, in obedience to a court restraining order. White supremacists beat white Unitarian Universalist minister James J. Reeb later that day in SelmaThe Battle of Dong-YinForty men burn their draft cards at the University of California, Berkeley, and a coffin is marched to the Berkeley Draft BoardSeveral hundred Vietnam War protesters in Berkeley, California, march to the Draft Board again to burn 19 more cards. Lyndon Johnson is hung in effigyThe first contingent of Australian combat troops arrives in South VietnamAstronaut Ed White makes the first U.S. space walkBattle of Dong XoaiA planned anti-Vietnam War protest at The Pentagon becomes a teach-in, with demonstrators distributing 50,000 leaflets in and around the buildingWhite Unitarian Universalist minister James J. Reeb, beaten by White supremacists in Selma, Alabama, on March 9 following the second march from Selma, dies in a hospital in Birmingham, AlabamaPresident Lyndon B. Johnson makes his "We Shall Overcome" speechPolice clash with 600 SNCC marchers in Montgomery, AlabamaIn Montgomery, Alabama, 1,600 civil rights marchers demonstrate at the CourthouseIn response to the events of March 7 and 9 in Selma, Alabama, President Lyndon B. Johnson sends a bill to Congress that forms the basis for the Voting Rights Act of 1965. It is passed by the Senate May 26, the House July 10, and signed into law by President Johnson August 6Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov leaves his Voskhod 2 spacecraft for 12 minutes, becomes the first person to walk in spaceA United States federal judge rules that SCLC has the lawful right to march to Montgomery, Alabama, to petition for 'redress of grievances'The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 beginsMartin Luther King, Jr. and others lead 3,200 civil rights activists in the third march from Selma, Alabama, to the capitol in MontgomeryNASA launches the United States' first 2-person crew (Gus Grissom, John Young) into Earth orbitMartin Luther King, Jr. and 25,000 civil rights activists successfully end the 4-day march from Selma, Alabama, to the capitol in MontgomeryFuneral services are held for Detroit homemaker Viola Liuzzo, who was shot dead by 4 Klansmen as she drove marchers back to Selma at night after the civil rights marchThe first Students for a Democratic Society march against the Vietnam War draws 25,000 protestors to Washington, D.C.The 1965 Yerevan demonstrationsU.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 which ends quotas based on national originThe Catholic Worker Movement stages an anti-war protest in Manhattan. One draft card burner is arrested, the first under the new lawThe Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea is signed in TokyoU.S. spacecraft Mariner 4 flies by Mars, becoming the first spacecraft to return images from the Red PlanetFour F-4C Phantoms escorting a bombing raid at Kang Chi are targeted by antiaircraft missiles, in the first such attack against American planes in the war. One is shot down and the other 3 sustain damageU.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson announces his order to increase the number of United States troops in South Vietnam from 75,000 to 125,000, and to more than double the number of men drafted per month - from 17,000 to 35,000U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Social Security Act of 1965 into law, establishing Medicare and MedicaidU.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 into law, outlawing literacy tests and other discriminatory voting practices that have been responsible for widespread disfranchisement of African AmericansThe Watts Riots begin in Los Angeles, ending on the 16th after resulting in 34 deaths and over 3,000 arrestsAt the conclusion of the Frankfurt Auschwitz trials, 66 ex-SS personnel receive life sentences, 15 others smaller onesIn a follow-up to August's Operation Starlite, United States Marines and South Vietnamese forces initiate Operation Piranha on the Batangan Peninsula, 23 miles (37 km) south of the Chu Lai Marine baseThe United States Department of Housing and Urban Development is establishedAn USAF F-104 Starfighter piloted by Captain Philip Eldon Smith is shot down by a Chinese MiG-19 Farmer. The pilot is held until March 15 1973Jonathan Myrick Daniels, an Episcopal seminarian from Keene, New Hampshire, is murdered in Hayneville, Alabama, while working in the civil rights movementThe Indonesian government outlaws the Communist Party of IndonesiaNear Da Nang, United States Marines repel an intense attack by Viet Cong forces, killing 56 guerrillas. A sketch of Marine positions is found on the dead body of a 13-year-old Vietnamese boy who sold drinks to the Marines the day beforeCuba and the United States formally agree to start an airlift for Cubans who want to go to the United States (by 1971 250,000 Cubans take advantage of this program)The Soviet Union launches the Venera 3 space probe from Baikonur, Kazakhstan toward Venus (on March 1, 1966, it becomes the first spacecraft to reach the surface of another planet)Tens of thousands of Vietnam War protesters picket the White House, then march on the Washington MonumentThe Pentagon tells U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson that if planned major sweep operations to neutralize Viet Cong forces during the next year are to succeed, the number of American troops in Vietnam will have to be increased from 120,000 to 400,000In response to U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson's call for "more flags" in Vietnam, Philippines President-elect Ferdinand Marcos announces he will send troops to help fight in South VietnamThe "Glasnost Meeting" in Moscow becomes the first spontaneous political demonstration, and the first demonstration for civil rights in the Soviet UnionThe Soviet Union announces that it has shipped rockets to North VietnamThe United Nations adopts the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial DiscriminationHome of civil rights activist Vernon Dahmer in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, is firebombed. Dahmer's family escapes but he dies the next day from severe burns. (White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Imperial Wizard Samuel Bowers will be unsuccessfully tried for this murder on four occasions, and then convicted in 1998.)About 8,000 U.S. soldiers land in South Vietnam; U.S. troops now total 190,000The unmanned Soviet Luna 9 spacecraft makes the first controlled rocket-assisted landing on the MoonLyndon Johnson of the United States and Nguyễn Cao Kỳ of South Vietnam convene with other officials in a summit in Honolulu, Hawaii to discuss the course of the Vietnam WarThe U.S. announces it will substantially increase the number of its troops in VietnamSoviet space probe Venera 3 crashes on Venus, becoming the first spacecraft to land on another planet's surfaceCrown Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands marries Claus von Amsberg. Some spectators demonstrate against the groom because he is GermanMilitary Prime Minister of South Vietnam Nguyễn Cao Kỳ sacked rival General Nguyễn Chánh Thi, precipitating large-scale civil and military dissension in parts of the nationFrench President Charles de Gaulle states that French troops will be taken out of NATO and that all French NATO bases and HQ's must be closed within a yearDemonstrations are held across the United States against the Vietnam WarIn South Vietnam, 20,000 Buddhists march in demonstrations against the policies of the military governmentThe 23rd Communist Party Conference is held in the Soviet Union; Leonid Brezhnev demands that U.S. troops leave Vietnam, and announces that Chinese-Soviet relations are not satisfactoryThe Soviet Union launches Luna 10, which later becomes the first space probe to enter orbit around the MoonBuddhists in South Vietnam protest against the fact that the new government has not set a date for free electionsLeonid Brezhnev becomes General Secretary of the Soviet Union, as well as Leader of the Communist Party of the U.S.S.R.U.S. troops in Vietnam total 250,000The South Vietnamese army besieges Da NangTens of thousands of anti-war demonstrators again picket the White House, then rally at the Washington MonumentThe Communist Party of China issues the 'May 16 Notice', marking the beginning of the Cultural Revolution.In New York City, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. makes his first public speech on the Vietnam WarThe Mengo CrisisFidel Castro declares martial law in Cuba because of a possible U.S. attackThe Indonesian and Malaysian governments declare that the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation is over (a treaty is signed on August 11)Surveyor 1 lands in Oceanus Procellarum on the Moon, becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to soft-land on another worldCivil rights activist James Meredith is shot by a sniper while traversing Mississippi in the March Against FearU.S. planes begin bombing Hanoi and HaiphongFrance formally leaves NATONorth Vietnam declares general mobilizationCongress of Racial Equality (CORE) endorses goal of Black Power at well attended convention in Baltimore. Martin Luther King, Jr., and Roy Wilkins criticize this declarationMartin Luther King Jr. leads a civil rights march in Chicago, during which he is struck by a rock thrown from an angry white mobIn the People's Republic of China, Mao Zedong begins the Cultural Revolution to purge and reorganize China's Communist PartyThe House Un-American Activities Committee starts investigating Americans who have aided the Viet Cong, with the intent to make these activities illegal. Anti-war demonstrators disrupt the meeting and 50 are arrestedThe Battle of Long TanThe United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC), predecessor of the United Farm Workers of America (UFW), is formedBobby Seale and Huey P. Newton found the Black Panther PartyThe Bình Tai MassacreThe Soviet Union declares that all Chinese students must leave the country before the end of OctoberNegotiations about the Vietnam War begin in Manila, PhilippinesNATO moves its HQ from Paris to BrusselsThe Cuban Adjustment Act comes into force, allowing 123,000 Cubans the opportunity to apply for permanent residence in the United StatesBình Hòa massacreBarbados is admitted to the United NationsIn Munich, the trial begins of Wilhelm Harster, accused of the murder of 82,856 Jews (including Anne Frank) when he led German security police during the German occupation of the Netherlands. He is eventually sentenced to 15 years in prisonApollo 1The United States, Soviet Union and United Kingdom sign the Outer Space Treaty (ratified by USSR May 19; comes into force October 10), prohibiting weapons of mass destruction from spaceThe Soviet Union protests the demonstrations before its embassy in BeijingNASA launches Lunar Orbiter 3The 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution (presidential succession and disability) is ratifiedThe Soviet Union announces that it has sent troops near the Chinese borderThe first phase of the Cambodian Civil War begins between the Kingdom of Cambodia and the Khmer RougeJoseph Stalin's daughter, Svetlana Alliluyeva, defects to the United States via the U.S. Embassy in New DelhiIn ongoing campus unrest, Howard University students protesting the Vietnam War, the ROTC program on campus and the draft, confront Gen. Lewis Hershey, then head of the U.S. Selective Service System, and as he attempts to deliver an address, shout him down with cries of "America is the Black man's battlegroundMartin Luther King Jr. denounces the Vietnam War during his sermon at the Riverside Church in New York CityIn San Francisco, 10,000 march against the Vietnam WarLarge demonstrations are held against the Vietnam War in New York City and San Francisco. The march, organized by the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, from Central Park to the United Nations drew hundreds of thousands of people, including Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Harry Belafonte, James Bevel, and Dr. Benjamin Spock, who marched and spoke at the event. A simultaneous march in San Francisco was attended by Coretta Scott KingLunar Orbiter 4 is launched by the United StatesYuri Andropov becomes KGB chief in the Soviet UnionThe Spring Mobilization Conference, a gathering of 700 antiwar activists is held in Washington D.C. to chart the future moves for the U.S. antiwar movementIsrael launches Operation Focus, an attack on Egyptian Air Force airfields; the allied armies of Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Jordan invade IsraelOperation FocusBattle of Ammunition HillThe USS Liberty incidentIsrael and Syria agree to a United Nations-mediated cease-fireLoving v. VirginiaVenera 4 is launched by the Soviet Union (the first space probe to enter another planet's atmosphere and successfully return data)U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson meets with Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin in Glassboro, New Jersey, for the 3-day Glassboro Summit Conference. Johnson travels to Los Angeles for a dinner at the Century Plaza Hotel where earlier in the day thousands of war protesters clashed with L.A. policeNigerian forces invade the secessionist BiafraThe People's Republic of China agrees to give North Vietnam an undisclosed amount of aid in the form of a grantOperation CochiseThurgood Marshall is confirmed as the first African American Justice of the United States Supreme CourtThe United States Marines launch a search and destroy mission in Quảng Nam and Quảng Tín provinces. The ensuing 4-day battle in Que Son Valley kills 114 Americans and 376 North VietnameseThe first Kwanzaa is celebrated by Maulana Karenga, founder of Organization US (a black nationalist group) and later chair of Black Studies at California State University, Long Beach, from 1989 to 2002USMC and ARVN troops launch Operation Deckhouse Five in the Mekong DeltaOperation Cedar Falls startsU.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk states during a news conference that, because of North Vietnam's opposition, proposals by the U.S. Congress for peace initiatives are futileThe Battle of Ong ThanhStudents at the University of Wisconsin–Madison protest over recruitment by Dow Chemical on the University campus; 76 are injured in the resulting riotThe Mariner 5 probe flies by VenusApproximately 70,000 Vietnam War protesters march in Washington, D.C. and rally at the Lincoln Memorial; in a successive march that day, 50,000 people march to the Pentagon, where Allen Ginsberg, Abbie Hoffman, and Jerry Rubin symbolically chant to "levitate" the building and "exorcise the evil withinU.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson holds a secret meeting with a group of the nation's most prestigious leaders ("the Wise Men") and asks them to suggest ways to unite the American people behind the war effort. They conclude that the American people should be given more optimistic reports on the progress of the warThe Rhodesian parliament passes pro-Apartheid lawsU.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967, establishing the Corporation for Public BroadcastingThe 50th anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution is celebrated in the Soviet UnionNASA launches the first Saturn V rocket, successfully carrying the Apollo 4 test spacecraft from Cape Kennedy into Earth orbitIn a ceremony in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 3 United States prisoners of war are released by the Viet Cong and turned over to American "New Left" antiwar activist Tom HaydenActing on optimistic reports he was given on November 13, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson tells the nation that, while much remains to be done, "We are inflicting greater losses than we're taking ... We are making progress." (Two months later the Tet Offensive by the Viet Cong is widely reported as a Viet Cong victory by the U.S. press and thus as a major setback to the U.S.)United States General William Westmoreland tells news reporters: "I am absolutely certain that whereas in 1965 the enemy was winning, today he is certainly losingU.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara announces his resignation to become president of the World Bank. McNamara's resignation follows U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson's outright rejection of McNamara's early November recommendations to freeze troop levels, stop the bombing of North Vietnam, and hand over ground fighting to South VietnamU.S. and South Vietnamese forces engage Viet Cong troops in the Mekong Delta (235 of the 300-strong Viet Cong battalion are killed)The Tet Offensive begins, as Viet Cong forces launch a series of surprise attacks across South VietnamThe United States Department of Defense announces that the United States Army and United States Marines will send about 24,000 troops back to Vietnam for involuntary second toursIn Mexico City, African-American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos raise their fists in a black power salute after winning, respectively, the gold and bronze medals in the Olympic men's 200 metresCiting progress in the Paris peace talks, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson announces to the nation that he has ordered a complete cessation of "all air, naval, and artillery bombardment of North Vietnam" effective November 1A Viet Cong officer named Nguyễn Văn Lém is executed by Nguyễn Ngọc Loan, a South Vietnamese National Police Chief. The event is photographed by Eddie Adams. The photo makes headlines around the world, eventually winning the 1969 Pulitzer Prize, and sways U.S. public opinion against the warThe Orangeburg MassacreThe Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacreThe Tet Offensive is halted; South Vietnam recaptures HuếThe Hà My MassacreThe First Battle of Saigon endsThe Mỹ Lai MassacreMartin Luther King Jr. delivers his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech in Memphis, TennesseeMartin Luther King Jr. is shot dead at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. Riots erupt in major American cities, lasting for several days afterwardsA shootout between Black Panthers and Oakland police results in several arrests and deaths, including 17-year-old Panther Bobby HuttonU.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1968The Catonsville Nine enter the Selective Service offices in Catonsville, Maryland, take dozens of selective service draft records, and burn them with napalm as a protest against the Vietnam WarU.S. presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy is shot at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles. Sirhan Sirhan is arrestedJames Earl Ray is arrested for the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty opens for signatureSouth Vietnamese opposition leader Trương Đình Dzu is sentenced to 5 years hard labor, for advocating the formation of a coalition government as a way to move toward an end to the warAlbania officially withdraws from the Warsaw Pact upon the Soviet Union-led Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, having already ceased to participate actively in Pact activity since 1962The Tet Offensive comes to an end in South VietnamTlatelolco massacreOperation SealordsNASA launches Apollo 7, the first manned Apollo mission (Wally Schirra, Donn Eisele, Walter Cunningham). Mission goals include the first live television broadcast from orbit and testing the lunar module docking maneuverOperation Commando Hunt is initiated to interdict men and supplies on the Ho Chi Minh trail, through Laos into South Vietnam. By the end of the operation, 3 million tons of bombs are dropped on Laos, slowing but not seriously disrupting trail operationsThe manned U.S. spacecraft Apollo 8 enters orbit around the Moon. Astronauts Frank Borman, Jim Lovell and William A. Anders become the first humans to see the far side of the Moon and planet Earth as a whole, as well as having traveled further away from Earth than any people in history. Anders photographs Earthrise. The crew also reads from GenesisThe Soviet Union launches Venera 5 toward VenusThe Soviet Union launches Venera 6 toward VenusThe Soviet Union launches Soyuz 5, which docks with Soyuz 4 for a transfer of crewTwo cosmonauts transfer from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4 via a spacewalk while the two craft are docked together, the first time such a transfer takes place. The two spacecraft undock and return to Earth two days laterAn assassination attempt is carried out on Leonid Brezhnev by deserter Viktor Ilyin. One person is killed, several are injured. Brezhnev escaped unharmedThe Mariner 6 Mars probe is launched from the United StatesNASA launches Apollo 9 (James McDivitt, Rusty Schweickart, David Scott) to test the lunar moduleApollo 9 returns safely to Earth after testing the Lunar ModuleSoviet space probe Venera 5 lands on VenusSoviet space probe Venera 6 begins to descend into Venus's atmosphere, sending back atmospheric data before being crushed by pressureUnited States National Guard helicopters spray skin-stinging powder on anti-war protesters in CaliforniaApollo 10's lunar module flies to within 15,400 m of the Moon's surfaceApollo 10 returns to Earth, after a successful 8-day test of all the components needed for the upcoming first manned Moon landingU.S. President Richard Nixon and South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu meet at Midway Island. Nixon announces that 25,000 U.S. troops will be withdrawn by SeptemberThe Stonewall riots in New York City mark the start of the modern gay rights movement in the U.S.The Apollo 11 returns from the first successful Moon landing and the astronauts are placed in biological isolation for several days in case they may have brought back lunar germs. The airless lunar environment is later determined to rule out microscopic lifeU.S. President Richard Nixon declares the Nixon Doctrine, stating that the United States now expects its Asian allies to take care of their own military defense. This starts the "Vietnamization" of the warU.S. President Richard Nixon makes an unscheduled visit to South Vietnam, meeting with President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and U.S. military commandersAt the apartment of French intermediary Jean Sainteny in Paris, U.S. representative Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese representative Xuan Thuy begin secret peace negotiations. They eventually fail since both sides cannot agree to any termsMariner 7 makes its closest fly-by of Mars (3,524 kilometers)The 1969 Libyan Coup d'étatPersons who were born during the years from 1944 to 1951, and who celebrate their birthdays on this day, mark the occasion without being aware that September 14 will be the first date selected in the new U.S. draft lottery on December 1Hundreds of thousands of people take part in Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam demonstrations across the United StatesThe very first U.S. troop withdrawals are madeApollo 11 (Buzz Aldrin, Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins) lifts off from Cape Kennedy in Florida towards the first manned landing on the MoonApollo program Moon landingU.S. President Richard Nixon addresses the nation on television and radio, asking the "silent majority" to join him in solidarity with the Vietnam War effort, and to support his policiesNASA launches Apollo 12 (Pete Conrad, Richard Gordon, Alan Bean), the second manned mission to the MoonThe Soviet submarine K-19 collides with the American submarine USS Gato in the Barents SeaIn Washington, D.C., 250,000–500,000 protesters stage a peaceful demonstration against the war, including a symbolic "March Against Death"Negotiators from the Soviet Union and the United States meet in Helsinki, to begin the SALT I negotiations aimed at limiting the number of strategic weapons on both sidesApollo 12 astronauts Charles Conrad and Alan Bean land at Oceanus Procellarum ("Ocean of Storms"), becoming the third and fourth humans to walk on the MoonA Cleveland, Ohio newspaper, The Plain Dealer, publishes explicit photographs of dead villagers from the My Lai Massacre in VietnamU.S. President Richard Nixon and Japanese Premier Eisaku Satō agree in Washington, D.C. to the return of Okinawa to Japanese control in 1972. Under the terms of the agreement, the U.S. retains rights to military bases on the island, but they must be nuclear-freeThe Apollo 12 spacecraft splashes down safely in the Pacific Ocean, ending the second manned mission to the MoonThe first draft lottery in the United States since World War II is held. September 14 is the first of the 366 days of the year selected, meaning that those persons who were born on September 14 in the years from 1944 to 1951 would be the first to be summoned. On January 4, 1970, The New York Times will run a long article, "Statisticians Charge Draft Lottery Was Not Random"Biafra capitulates, ending the Nigerian Civil WarThe Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty goes into effect, after ratification by 56 nationsThe 1970 Cambodian coup d'étatThe first Earth Day proclamation is issued by San Francisco Mayor Joseph AliotoNASA's Explorer 1, the first American satellite and Explorer program spacecraft, reenters Earth's atmosphere after 12 years in orbitAmerican President Richard Nixon signs the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act into law, banning cigarette television advertisements in the United States from January 1, 1971Apollo 13 (Jim Lovell, Fred Haise, Jack Swigert) is launched toward the MoonApollo 13 splashes down safely in the PacificThe first Earth Day is celebrated in the U.S.The U.S. invades Cambodia to hunt out the Viet Cong; widespread, large antiwar protests occur in the U.S.President Richard Nixon orders U.S. forces to cross into neutral Cambodia, threatening to widen the Vietnam War, sparking protests across the United States and leading to the Kent State shootingsThe Kent State ShootingsIn Washington, D.C., 100,000 people demonstrate against the Vietnam WarSoyuz 9, a two-man spacecraft, is launched in the Soviet UnionOperation WeddingThe United States Senate repeals the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution of 1964U.S. ground troops withdraw from CambodiaThe U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is subordinated to the Public Health ServiceThe 1970 Omani Coup d'étatVenera 7 is launched toward Venus. It later becomes the first spacecraft to successfully transmit data from the surface of another planetVietnam War protesters bomb Sterling Hall at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, leading to an international manhunt for the perpetratorsAn anti-war rally is held at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, attended by John Kerry, Jane Fonda and Donald SutherlandLuna 16 lands on the Moon and lifts off the next day with samples. It lands on Earth September 24The Khmer Republic is proclaimed in Cambodia, escalating the Cambodian Civil War between the government and the Khmer RougeU.S. President Richard Nixon announces that the United States will withdraw 40,000 more troops before ChristmasThe Soviet Union launches the Zond 8 lunar probeIn Vietnam, the worst monsoon to hit the area in six years causes large floods, kills 293, leaves 200,000 homeless and virtually halts the Vietnam WarVietnamization:The United States Military Assistance Command in Vietnam reports the lowest weekly American soldier death toll in five years (24 soldiers die that week, which is the fifth consecutive week the death toll is below 50; 431 are reported wounded that week, however)The Soviet Union launches Luna 17The Supreme Court of the United States votes 6–3 not to hear a case by the state of Massachusetts, about the constitutionality of a state law granting Massachusetts residents the right to refuse military service in an undeclared warU.S. President Richard Nixon asks the U.S. Congress for US$155 million in supplemental aid for the Cambodian government (US$85 million is for military assistance to prevent the overthrow of the government of Premier Lon Nol by the Khmer Rouge and North Vietnam)Operation Ivory CoastIn Tokyo, author and Tatenokai militia leader Yukio Mishima and his followers take over the headquarters of the Japan Self-Defense Forces in an attempted coup d'état. After Mishima's speech fails to sway public opinion towards his right-wing political beliefs, including restoration of the powers of the Emperor, he commits seppuku (public ritual suicide)The USSR's Venera 7 becomes the first spacecraft to land successfully on Venus and transmit data back to EarthLaw 70-001 is enacted in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, amending article 4 of the constitution and making the country a one-party stateApollo 14 (carrying astronauts Alan Shepard, Stuart Roosa, and Edgar Mitchell) lifts off on the third successful lunar landing missionApollo 14 lands on the MoonApollo 14 returns to Earth after the third manned Moon landingThe US, UK, USSR and others sign the Seabed Treaty, outlawing nuclear weapons on the ocean floorBacked by American air and artillery support, South Vietnamese troops invade LaosSecretary General U Thant signs the United Nations proclamation of the vernal equinox as Earth DayThe Pakistani army occupies East PakistanEast Pakistan’s (now Bangladesh) independence is declared by Ziaur Rahman on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and transmitted using East Pakistan Rifles (now Border Guards Bangladesh) radioThe People's Republic of Bangladesh forms, under Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, at MujibnagorSoyuz 10 docks with Salyut 1Five hundred thousand people in Washington, D.C. and 125,000 in San Francisco march in protest against the Vietnam WarMars 2 is launched by the Soviet UnionMariner 9 is launched toward MarsVietnam Veterans for a Just Peace, claiming to represent the majority of U.S. veterans who served in Southeast Asia, speak against war protestsSoyuz 11 (Vladislav Volkov, Georgi Dobrovolski, Viktor Patsayev) is launchedRepresentatives of Japan and the United States sign the Okinawa Reversion Agreement, whereby the U.S. will return control of OkinawaPresident Richard Nixon declares the U.S. War on DrugsThe New York Times begins to publish the Pentagon PapersAfter a successful mission aboard Salyut 1, the world's first manned space station, the crew of the Soyuz 11 spacecraft die after their air supply leaks out through a faulty valveThe 26th Amendment to the United States Constitution, formally certified by President Richard Nixon, lowers the voting age from 21 to 18American President Richard Nixon announces his 1972 visit to ChinaApollo 15 (carrying astronauts David Scott, Alfred Worden, and James Irwin) is launchedThe United Kingdom opts out of the Space Race, with the cancellation of its Black Arrow launch vehicleApollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin become the first to ride in the Lunar Roving Vehicle, a day after landing on the MoonApollo 15 returns to EarthAustralia and New Zealand decide to withdraw their troops from VietnamThe United Nations General Assembly admits the People's Republic of China and expels the Republic of China (or Taiwan)The House of Commons of the United Kingdom votes 356–244 in favour of joining the European Economic CommunityThe total number of American troops still in Vietnam drops to a record low of 196,700 (the lowest since January 1966U.S. President Richard M. Nixon sets February 1, 1972, as the deadline for the removal of another 45,000 American troops from VietnamMariner 9 becomes the first spacecraft to enter Mars orbit successfullyThe People's Republic of China takes the Republic of China's seat on the United Nations Security Council (see China and the United Nations)Khmer Rouge rebels intensify assaults on Cambodian government positions, forcing their retreat from Kompong Thmar and nearby Ba Ray, 10 kilometers northeast of Phnom PenhThe Soviet Mars 3 lander reaches the surface of Mars, transmits for a few seconds and then goes silent. It is the first spacecraft to reach the planetOperation Chengiz KhanVictory Day of BangladeshU.S. President Richard Nixon orders the development of a Space Shuttle programJapanese soldier Shoichi Yokoi is discovered in Guam; he had spent 28 years in the jungleThe last draft lottery is held, a watershed event in the wind-down of military conscription in the United States during the Vietnam era. These draft candidates are never called to dutyThe Soviet unmanned spaceship Luna 20 lands on the MoonNorth Vietnamese negotiators walk out of the Paris Peace Talks to protest U.S. air raidsThe Pioneer 10 spacecraft is launched from Cape Kennedy, to be the first man-made satellite to leave the solar systemThe First Sudanese Civil War endsThe Easter Offensive begins after North Vietnamese forces cross into the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) of South VietnamThe U.S. and the Soviet Union join some 70 nations in signing the Biological Weapons Convention, an agreement to ban biological warfareApollo 16 (John Young, Ken Mattingly, Charlie Duke) is launched. During the mission, the astronauts, driving the Lunar Roving Vehicle, achieve a lunar rover speed record of 18 km/hNguyen Hue OffensiveThe Burundian Genocide against the Hutu begins; more than 500,000 Hutus dieU.S. President Richard Nixon orders the mining of Haiphong Harbor in VietnamOperation Linebacker and Operation Custom Tailor begin with large-scale bombing operations against North Vietnam by tactical fighter aircraftOkinawa is returned to Japan after 27 years of United States occupationRichard Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev sign the SALT I treaty in Moscow, as well as the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and other agreementsAssociated Press photographer Nick Ut takes his Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph of a naked nine-year-old Phan Thi Kim Phuc running down a road after being burned by napalmWatergate ScandalThe United States returns Okinawa, occupied and governed since the World War II Battle of Okinawa, to JapanU.S. President Richard M. Nixon and White House chief of staff H. R. Haldeman are taped talking about using the C.I.A. to obstruct the F.B.I.'s investigation into the Watergate break-insU.S. President Richard Nixon announces that no new draftees will be sent to VietnamFollowing Pakistan's surrender to India in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, both nations sign the historic Simla Agreement, agreeing to settle their disputes bilaterallyThe United States launches Landsat 1, the first Earth-resources satelliteDenmark joins the European Community; the Faroe Islands stay outFollowing a visit to South Vietnam, U.S. National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger suggests that "peace is at handThe United States Army turns over the massive Long Binh military base to South VietnamThe United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization adopts the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural HeritageThe United States loses its first B-52 Stratofortress of the warWhite House Press Secretary Ron Ziegler tells the press that there will be no more public announcements concerning United States troop withdrawals from Vietnam, due to the fact that troop levels are now down to 27,000British Foreign Secretary Sir Alec Douglas-Home says that Royal Navy ships will be stationed to protect British trawlers off IcelandApollo 17 lands on the MoonEugene Cernan is the last person to walk on the Moon, after he and Harrison Schmitt complete the third and final Extra-vehicular activity (EVA) of Apollo 17. This is currently the last manned mission to the MoonApollo 17 returns to Earth, concluding the program of lunar explorationEast Germany and West Germany recognize each otherThe Christmas bombing of North Vietnam causes widespread criticism of the U.S. and President Richard NixonThe United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark enter the European Economic Community, which later becomes the European UnionCiting progress in peace negotiations, U.S. President Richard Nixon announces the suspension of offensive action in North VietnamU.S. involvement in the Vietnam War ends with the signing of the Paris Peace AccordsThe first American prisoners of war are released from VietnamFollowing President Richard Nixon's visit to mainland China, the United States and the People's Republic of China agree to establish liaison officesPioneer 11 is launched on a mission to study the Solar SystemA 71-day standoff between federal authorities and American Indian Movement activists who were occupying the Pine Ridge Reservation at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, ends with the surrender of the militantsSkylab, the United States' first space station, is launchedJoseph Godber, British Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, announces that Royal Navy frigates will protect British trawlers fishing in the disputed 80 kilometres (50 mi) limit around IcelandSkylab 2 (Pete Conrad, Paul Weitz, Joseph Kerwin) is launched on a mission to repair damage to the recently launched Skylab space stationHéctor José Cámpora becomes democratic president of the Argentine Republic ending the 1966 to 1973 Revolución Argentina military dictatorshipU.S. President Richard Nixon begins several talks with Soviet leader Leonid BrezhnevSoviet leader Leonid Brezhnev addresses the American people on television, the first to do soThe 1973 Uruguayan coup d'étatThe Soviet Mars 5 space probe is launchedMars 6, also known as 3MP No.50P, is a Soviet spacecraft launched to explore MarsSouth Korean politician Kim Dae-jung is kidnapped in Tokyo by the KCIAThe U.S. bombing of Cambodia ends, officially halting 12 years of combat activity in Southeast Asia according to the Case–Church Amendment-an act that prohibits military operations in Laos, Cambodia, and North and South Vietnam as a follow up of the Paris Peace AccordsThe 1973 Chilean coup d'étatThe two German Republics, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), are admitted to the United NationsSoyuz 12 (Vasily Lazarev, Oleg Makarov), the first Soviet manned flight since the Soyuz 11 tragedy in 1971, is launchedThe fourth and largest Arab–Israeli conflict begins, as Egyptian and Syrian forces attack Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights on Yom KippurThe Saturday Night MassacreThe Yom Kippur War endsNASA launches Mariner 10 toward Mercury (on March 29, 1974, it becomes the first space probe to reach that planet)The Congress of the United States overrides President Richard Nixon's veto of the War Powers Resolution, which limits presidential power to wage war without congressional approvalNASA launches Skylab 4 (Gerald Carr, William Pogue, Edward Gibson) from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on an 84-day missionU.S. President Richard Nixon's attorney, J. Fred Buzhardt, reveals the existence of an 181⁄2-minute gap in one of the White House tape recordings related to WatergatePioneer 10 sends back the first close-up images of JupiterSoyuz 13 (Pyotr Klimuk, Valentin Lebedev) is launchedAfter a record 84 days in orbit, the crew of Skylab 4 returns to EarthHiroo Onoda, one of the last Japanese holdouts of World War II, surrendersThe Kiryat Shmona massacreThe Carnation RevolutionNASA's ATS-6 satellite is launchedThe 1974 coup d'étatU.S. President Richard Nixon announces his resignation on August 8, effective at noon on August 9Vice President Gerald Ford is sworn in as the 38th President of the United States upon Nixon's resignationIn Hanoi, North Vietnam, the Politburo approves the final military offensive against South VietnamNorth Vietnamese troops attack Ban Mê Thuột, South Vietnam, on their way to capturing SaigonSouth Vietnam President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu orders the Central Highlands evacuated. This turns into a mass exodus involving troops and civilians (the Convoy of Tears)The Soviet manned space mission (Soyuz 18a) ends in failure during its ascent into orbit when a critical malfunction occurs in the second and third stages of the booster rocket during staging at an altitude of 192 km, resulting in the cosmonauts and their Soyuz spacecraft having to be ripped free from the vehicle. Both cosmonauts (Vasily Lazarev and Oleg Makarov) surviveBus MassacreThe Khmer Republic surrenders, when the Communist Khmer Rouge guerilla forces capture Phnom Penh ending the Cambodian Civil War, with mass evacuation of American troops and Cambodian civiliansAs North Vietnamese Army forces close in on the South Vietnamese capital Saigon, the Australian Embassy is closed and evacuated, almost 10 years to the day since the first Australian troop commitment to South VietnamOperation Frequent WindNorth Vietnam concludes its East Sea Campaign by capturing all of the Spratly Islands that were being held by South VietnamThe Fall of SaigonThe Khmer Rouge raided several Vietnamese towns, which eventually leads to the Cambodian–Vietnamese WarA manned American Apollo spacecraft and the manned Soviet Soyuz spacecraft for the Soyuz 19 mission, docks in orbit, marking the first such link-up between spacecraft from the 2 nationsNASA launches the Viking 1 planetary probe toward MarsCape Verde, Mozambique and São Tomé and Príncipe join the United NationsThe Green MarchUnited Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379Angola becomes independent from Portugal and civil war eruptsSpain abandons Western SaharaThe "Group of 6" (G-6) industrialized nations is formedThe United States Congress approves the Clark Amendment, ending aid to the FNLA and UNITASpanish dictator Francisco Franco dies in Madrid, effectively marking the end of the dictatorship established following the Spanish Civil War and the beginning of Spain's transition to democracyIn Laos, the communist party of the Pathet Lao takes over Vientiane and defeats the Kingdom of Laos, forcing King Sisavang Vatthana to abdicate and creating the Lao People's Democratic RepublicThe United States vetoes a United Nations resolution that calls for an independent Palestinian stateThe Spanish Armed Forces withdraw from Western SaharaThe South African Defence Force withdraws from Angola and concludes Operation SavannahTiananmen IncidentSyria intervenes in the Lebanese Civil War in opposition to the Palestine Liberation Organization, whom it had previously supportedThe UK and Iceland end the Cod WarG-6 is renamed "Group of 7" (G-7)North Vietnam dissolves the Provisional Government of South Vietnam and unites the two countries to form the Socialist Republic of VietnamThe Viking 1 lander successfully lands on MarsNASA releases the famous Face on Mars photo, taken by Viking 1Viking 2 enters into orbit around MarsAt Panmunjom, North Korea, two United States soldiers are killed while trying to chop down part of a tree in the Korean Demilitarized Zone which had obscured their viewThe Viking 2 spacecraft lands at Utopia Planitia on Mars, taking the first close-up color photos of the planet's surfaceSoviet Air Force pilot Lt. Viktor Belenko lands a MiG-25 jet fighter at Hakodate, on the island of Hokkaidō in Japan, and requests political asylum in the United StatesMao Zedong, general secretary of China dies at the age of 82 from a heart attackThe Warsaw Treaty Organization joint secretariat is establishedAngola joins the United NationsThe Viet Cong is disbanded, and its former members become a part of the Vietnam People's ArmyThe United Nations General Assembly adopts the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification TechniquesSamoa joins the United NationsU.S. President Jimmy Carter pardons Vietnam War draft evadersThe 1977 Atocha massacreThe Soviet Union launches Soyuz 24 (Viktor Gorbatko, Yury Glazkov) to dock with the Salyut 5 space stationUnited States lifts ban on travel by U.S. citizens to Cambodia, Cuba, North Korea, and VietnamSpain legalizes the Communist Party of Spain, which had been outlawed since 1939The Cold War between Cambodia and Vietnam evolves into the Cambodian–Vietnamese WarThe Southeast Asia Treaty Organization is permanently disbandedThe purged Chinese Communist leader Deng Xiaoping is restored to power nine months after the "Gang of Four" was expelled from power in a coup d'étatThe NASA Space Shuttle, named Enterprise, makes its first test free-flight from the back of a Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier AircraftThe Soviet icebreaker Arktika becomes the first surface ship to reach the North PoleThe United States launches the Voyager 2 spacecraftVoyager 1 is launched after a brief delayTreaties between Panama and the United States on the status of the Panama Canal are signed. The U.S. agrees to transfer control of the canal to Panama at the end of the 20th centuryNorth Korean agents abduct Yutaka Kume from Noto Peninsula starting the North Korean abductions of Japanese citizensThe Soviet Union adopts its third Constitution after a prolonged campaign by Brezhnev Supporters to have it passed before the Supreme Soviet dissolves for the end of the parliamentary sessionSoyuz 28 (Aleksei Gubarev, Vladimír Remek) is launched on a rendezvous with Salyut 6, with the first cosmonaut from a country other than the USA or USSR (Czechoslovakian Vladimír Remek)Soyuz 28 landsThe Marxist "Democratic Republic of Afghanistan" is proclaimed under pro-communist leader Nur Muhammad TarakiThe Battle of Cassinga1978 Iranian Chinook shootdownThe Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People's Republic of China is concludedThe Solomon Islands join the United NationsVietnam attacks CambodiaThe first Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras is held as a protest march and commemoration of the Stonewall riotsThe Spanish Constitution officially restores the country's democratic governmentThe pivotal Third Plenum of the 11th National Congress of the Communist Party of China is held in Beijing, with Deng Xiaoping reversing Mao-era policies to pursue a program for Chinese economic reformVietnam launches a major offensive against the Khmer Rouge of CambodiaThe Constitution of Spain is approved in a referendum, officially ending 40 years of military dictatorshipThe United States and the People's Republic of China establish full diplomatic relationsThe People's Army of Vietnam and Vietnamese-backed Cambodian insurgents announce the fall of Phnom Penh, Cambodia, and the collapse of the Pol Pot regime. Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge retreat west to an area along the Thai border, ending large-scale fighting in the Cambodian–Vietnamese WarSupporters of Ayatollah Khomeini take over the Iranian law enforcement, courts and government administration; the final session of the Iranian National Consultative Assembly is heldThe U.S. Voyager 1 spaceprobe photos reveal Jupiter's ringsVoyager 1 makes its closest approach to Jupiter at 277,000 kilometres (172,000 mi)End of major hostilities in the Sino-Vietnamese WarThe Egypt–Israel Peace TreatyThe Salvadoran Civil War beginsNASA's first orbiting space station Skylab begins its return to Earth, after being in orbit for 6 years and 2 monthsThe Sandinista National Liberation Front concludes a successful revolutionary campaign against the Somoza dynasty and assumes power in NicaraguaThe 1979 Ba'ath Party PurgeThe U.S. Pioneer 11 becomes the first spacecraft to visit Saturn when it passes the planet at a distance of 21,000 kilometres (13,000 mi)The East German balloon escapeThe Soviet Union invades Afghanistan, and Babrak Karmal replaces overthrown and executed President Hafizullah Amin, which begins the warThe Grand Mosque seizureThe Commonwealth Trade Union Council is establishedThe Voyager 1 probe confirms the existence of Janus, a moon of SaturnThe 1980 Liberian coup d'étatThe Mariel boatlift from Cuba beginsThe Dominican embassy siege in Colombia ends with all remaining hostages released after the guerrillas are allowed to escape to CubaThe Sumpul River MassacreThe African National Congress in South Africa publishes a statement by their imprisoned leader Nelson MandelaThe 1980 Turkish coup d'étatThe command council of Iraq orders its army to "deliver its fatal blow on Iranian military targets," initiating the Iran–Iraq WarGreece rejoins the NATO military structureEl Salvador and Honduras sign a peace treaty to put the border dispute fought over in 1969's Football War before the International Court of JusticeGreece enters the European Economic Community, predecessor of the European UnionThe FMLN launches its first major offensive, gaining control of most of Morazán and Chalatenango departmentsUnited States and Iranian officials sign an agreement to release 52 American hostages after 14 months of captivityAttempted Assassination of Ronald ReaganSpace Shuttle Columbia with NASA astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen launches on the STS-1 mission, returning to Earth on April 14. It is the first time a manned reusable spacecraft has returned from orbitDaylight saving time is introduced in the Soviet UnionIn Riyadh, the Gulf Cooperation Council is created between Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab EmiratesThe Organization of Eastern Caribbean States is foundedA worldwide television audience of over 750 million people watch the Wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer at St Paul's Cathedral in LondonAs many as 50,000 demonstrators, mostly women and children, take to the streets in Łódź to protest food ration shortages in Communist PolandGulf of Sidra incident (1981)Soviet submarine S-363 runs aground outside the Karlskrona, Sweden military baseDuring the Ministerial Session of the North Atlantic Council in Brussels, Spain signs the Protocol of Accession to NATOThe El Mozote MassacreAmerican Brigadier General James L. Dozier is kidnapped in Verona by the Italian Red BrigadesUnited States Army Brigadier General James L. Dozier is rescued by the Italian anti-terrorism Nucleo Operativo Centrale di Sicurezza (NOCS) force after being held captive for 42 days by the Red BrigadesA ground-breaking ceremony for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial is held in Washington, D.C.The Invasion of the Falkland IslandsOperation ParaquetThe Bijon Setu MassacreThe British nuclear submarine HMS Conqueror sinks the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano, killing 323 sailorsHMS Sheffield is hit by an Argentine Exocet missile and burns out of control; 20 sailors are killed. The ship sinks on May 10The British Special Air Service launches Operation Mikado to destroy three Argentinean Exocet missiles and five Super Étendard fighter-bombers in mainland Argentina. It fails when the Argentineans discover the plotHMS Ardent is sunk by Argentine aircraft, killing 22 sailorsHMS Antelope is lostKGB head Yuri Andropov is appointed to the Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet UnionBritish ships HMS Coventry and SS Atlantic Conveyor are sunk during the Falklands War; Coventry by two A-4C Skyhawks and the latter sunk by an ExocetSpain becomes the 16th member of NATO and the first nation to enter the alliance since West Germany's admission in 1955Forces under Israeli Defense Minister Ariel Sharon invade southern Lebanon in their "Operation Peace for the Galilee," eventually reaching as far north as the capital BeirutThe Bluff Cove Air AttacksArgentine forces in the capital, Stanley, conditionally surrender to British forcesArgentine military dictator Leopoldo Galtieri resigns in the wake of his country's defeat in the Falklands WarHMS Hermes, the Royal Navy flagship during the Falklands War, returns home to Portsmouth to a hero's welcomeThe 1982 Kenyan Coup d'état AttemptA multinational force lands in Beirut to oversee the PLO withdrawal from Lebanon. French troops arrive August 21, U.S. Marines August 25The 1st International Day of Peace is proclaimed by the (United Nations)The Wimpy OperationLuzhniki DisasterIn the Soviet Union, former KGB head Yuri Andropov is selected to become the general secretary of the Soviet Communist Party's Central Committee, succeeding the late Leonid I. Brezhnev who had died two days earlierThe Vietnam Veterans Memorial is dedicated in Washington, D.C., after a march to its site by thousands of Vietnam War veteransThe People's Republic of China adopts its current constitutionNellie MassacreIBM releases the IBM PC XTThe Space Shuttle Challenger is launched on its maiden voyage: STS-61983 United States embassy Bombing in BeirutManchester, Maine, U.S., schoolgirl Samantha Smith is invited to visit the Soviet Union by its leader Yuri Andropov, after he read her letter in which she expressed fears about nuclear warSally Ride becomes the first American woman in space aboard Space Shuttle Challenger on the STS-7 missionThe government of Poland announces the end of martial law and amnesty for political prisoners13 Sri Lanka Army soldiers are killed after a deadly ambush by the militant Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, starting the Sri Lankan Civil War which continued until 2009Guion Bluford becomes the first African-American in space aboard Space Shuttle Challenger on the STS-8 missionKorean Air Lines Flight 007 is shot down by Soviet Union Air Force Su-15 Flagon pilot Major Gennadi Osipovich near Moneron Island when the commercial aircraft enters Soviet airspace. All 269 on board are killed including U.S. Congressman Larry McDonaldThe Soviet Union admits to shooting down Korean Air Lines Flight 007, stating that the pilots did not know it was a civilian aircraft when it violated Soviet airspace1983 Soviet Nuclear False Alarm IncidentThe Soyuz T-10-1 mission ends in a pad abort at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, when a pad fire occurs at the base of the Soyuz U rocket during the launch countdown. The escape tower system, attached to the top of the capsule containing the crew and Soyuz spacecraft, fires immediately, pulling the crew safe from the vehicle a few seconds before the rocket explodes, destroying the launch complexRangoon Bombing1983 Beirut Barracks BombingsThe Zapatista Army of National Liberation is founded in MexicoAble Archer 83United States Navy aviator Lt's. Mark Lange and Bobby Goodman are shot down in an A-6 Intruder over Lebanon and captured by Syrians; Lt. Lange dies of his injuries; Lt. Goodman is released 30 days later after the intervention of the Reverend Jesse JacksonThe Reverend Jesse Jackson travels to Syria to secure the release of U.S. Navy Lieutenant Robert Goodman, who has been in Syrian captivity since being shot down over Lebanon during a bombing missionPresident of the United States Ronald Reagan meets with Navy Lieutenant Robert Goodman and the Reverend Jesse Jackson at the White House, following Lieutenant Goodman's release from Syrian captivityKonstantin Chernenko succeeds the late Yuri Andropov as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet UnionThe United States Marine Corps pulls out of Beirut, LebanonIran accuses Iraq of using chemical weapons; the United Nations condemns their use on March 30Indian Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma is launched into space, aboard the Soyuz T-11Operation MeghdootSeveromorsk DisasterTetris is officially released in the Soviet Union on the Electronika 60Salyut 7Soviet submarine K-278 Komsomolets reaches a record submergence depth of 1,020 meters1984 United States embassy annex bombing in BeirutThe United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China sign the initial agreement to return Hong Kong to China in 1997Aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger, astronaut Kathryn D. Sullivan becomes the first American woman to perform a space walkPolish secret police kidnap Jerzy Popiełuszko, a Catholic priest who supports the Solidarity movement. His dead body is found in a reservoir 11 days later on October 30The European Economic Community makes £1.8 million available to help combat the famine in EthiopiaCesar Chavez delivers his speech, "What The Future Holds For Farm Workers And Hispanics", at the Commonwealth Club in San FranciscoThe Controlled Impact DemonstrationThe 1984 Mannar massacreA Soviet cruise missile plunges into Inarinjärvi lake in Finnish Lapland. Finnish authorities announce the fact in public on January 3, 1985The Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) is formedThe 1985 Borobudur BombingCNN reporter Jeremy Levin is freed from captivity in LebanonIsrael begins withdrawing troops from Lebanon1985 Beirut Car BombingsMikhail Gorbachev becomes General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party and de facto leader of the Soviet UnionUnited States Army military intelligence officer Arthur D. Nicholson is shot by Soviet military sergeant Aleksandr Ryabtsev at a Soviet military base in Ludwigslust, East GermanyThe USS Coral Sea collides with the Ecuadorian tanker ship Napo off the coast of CubaSouth Africa ends its ban on interracial marriagesThe Soviet Union performs a nuclear weapon test in eastern KazakhstanThe 3rd total Victory Day Parade (the first being in 1945 and the next in 1965) is held on Red Square in Moscow in the Soviet UnionThe remains of Josef Mengele, the physician notorious for Nazi human experimentation on inmates of Auschwitz concentration camp, buried in 1979 under the name of Wolfgang Gerhard, are exhumed in Embu das Artes, Brazil1985 Nepal BombingsTakao Doi, Mamoru Mohri and Chiaki Mukai are chosen to be Japan's first astronautsThe first arms, 96 BGM-71 TOWs, are sent to Iran in exchange for hostages in Lebanon and profits for the Nicaraguan Contras without public knowledgeThe wreck of the RMS Titanic is located by a joint American-French expedition led by Dr. Robert Ballard (WHOI) and Jean-Louis Michel (IFREMER) using side-scan sonar from RV KnorrThe Plaza Accord is signed by five nationsOperation "Wooden Leg"The Space Shuttle Atlantis makes its maiden flightThe Palace of Justice SiegeIn Geneva, U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev meet for the first timeExtremist David Lewis Rice murders civil rights attorney Charles Goldmark as well as Goldmark's wife and two children in Seattle. He believed the family was Jewish and Communist and claimed his dedication to the Christian Identity movement drove him to commit the crimeSpain and Portugal enter the European Community, which becomes the European Union in 1993The Voyager 2 space probe makes its first encounter with UranusThe Space Shuttle Challenger disasterThe Ouadi Doum AirstrikeThe Soviet Union launches the Mir space stationThe 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union opens in Moscow. The General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev introduces the keywords of his mandate to the audience: Glasnost and Perestroika1986 Black Sea incidentWest Berlin discotheque Bombing1986 United States Bombing of LibyaThe Chernobyl disasterSomali President Siad Barre is injured in a car accident in Mogadishu and taken to Saudi Arabia for treatment. Somali opposition groups see this as an opportunity to try and remove Barre, beginning the Somali Civil WarThe Soviet passenger liner SS Admiral Nakhimov collides with the bulk carrier Pyotr Vasev in the Black Sea and sinks almost immediately, killing 398The Marshall Islands became an associated state under the Compact of Free AssociationNational Security Council member Oliver North and his secretary, Fawn Hall, start shredding documents implicating them in selling weapons to Iran and channeling the proceeds to help fund the Contra rebels in NicaraguaThe Lebanese magazine Ash-Shiraa reports that the United States has been selling weapons to Iran in secret, in order to secure the release of 7 American hostages held by pro-Iranian groups in LebanonRutan Voyager, an experimental aircraft designed by Burt Rutan and piloted by Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager, begins its flight around the world from Edwards Air Force Base in the United StatesRutan Voyager completes the first nonstop circumnavigation of the earth by air without refueling in 9 days, 3 minutes and 44 secondsBattle of FadaSN 1987A, the first "naked-eye" supernova since 1604, is observedBeginning of the Phosphorite War protest movement in Soviet-occupied EstoniaThe Tower Commission rebukes U.S. President Ronald Reagan for not controlling his National Security Council staffU.S. President Ronald Reagan addresses the American people on the Iran–Contra affair, acknowledging that his overtures to Iran had "deteriorated" into an arms-for-hostages dealZeebrugge disasterThe governments of the Portuguese Republic and the People's Republic of China sign an agreement in which Macau will be returned to China in 1999A Soviet-made Ilyushin Il-62 airliner, operated by LOT Polish Airlines, crashes into a forest just outside Warsaw, killing all 183 people on boardThe Hashimpura MassacreUSS Stark is hit by two Iraqi-owned Exocet AM39 air-to-surface missiles killing 47 sailorsEighteen-year-old West German pilot Mathias Rust evades Soviet air defenses and lands a private plane on Red Square in Moscow. He is immediately detained (released on August 3, 1988)During a visit to Berlin, Germany, U.S. President Ronald Reagan challenges Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin WallTeddy Seymour is officially designated the first black man to sail around the world, when he completes his solo sailing circumnavigation in Frederiksted, St. Croix, of the United States Virgin IslandsThe Hipercor BombingIraqi warplanes drop mustard-gas bombs on the Iranian town of Sardasht in two separate bombing rounds, on four residential areas. This is the first time a civilian town was targeted by chemical weaponsSouth Korean president Roh Tae-woo makes a speech promising a wide program of nationwide reforms, the result of the June Democracy MovementThe Single European Act is passed by the European CommunityThe 1987 Burundian Coup d'étatThe 1987 Mecca incidentIn Moscow, Russia, the trial begins for 19-year-old pilot Mathias Rust, who flew his Cessna airplane into Red Square in MayThe first National Coming Out Day is held in celebration of the second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay RightsOperation Nimble ArcherThe Rebellion of BrașovKorean Air Flight 858 is blown up over the Andaman Sea, killing 115 crew and passengers. North Korean agents are responsible for the bombingNASA announces the names of 4 companies awarded contracts to help build Space Station Freedom: Boeing Aerospace, General Electric's Astro-Space Division, McDonnell Douglas, and the Rocketdyne Division of RockwellThe Soviet Union begins its program of economic restructuring (perestroika) with legislation initiated by Premier Mikhail Gorbachev (though Gorbachev had begun minor restructuring in 1985)1988 Black Sea Bumping incidentHaving defeated the Nadew Command, the EPLF enters the town of Afabet, victoriously concluding the Battle of AfabetThe Candle demonstration in Bratislava, Slovakia is the first mass demonstration of the 1980s against the socialist government in CzechoslovakiaIn the Geneva Accords, the Soviet Union commits itself to withdrawal of its forces from AfghanistanThe USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58) strikes a naval mine in the Persian Gulf, while deployed on Operation Earnest Will, during the Tanker War phase of the Iran–Iraq WarOperation Praying MantisAfter more than 8 years of fighting, the Soviet Army begins its withdrawal from AfghanistanThe Soviet Union votes to end the CPSU's monopoly on economic and other non-political power and to further economic changes towards a less rigidly Marxist-Leninist economyA truce begins in the Iran–Iraq WarThe Iran–Iraq War ends, with an estimated one million lives lostIn Soviet-occupied Estonia, 300,000 demonstrate for independenceNASA resumes Space Shuttle flights, grounded after the Challenger disaster, with Space Shuttle DiscoveryIn the Soviet Union, the unmanned Shuttle Buran is launched by an Energia rocket on its maiden orbital spaceflight (the first and last space flight for the shuttle)The Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR adopts the Estonian Sovereignty Declaration in which the laws of the Estonian SSR are declared supreme over those of the Soviet Union. The USSR declares it unconstitutional on November 26. It is the first declaration of sovereignty from Moscow of any Soviet or Eastern Bloc entity1989 Air Battle near TobrukIn accordance with United Nations Security Council Resolution 626 and the New York Accords, Cuban troops begin withdrawing from AngolaThe last Soviet Union armoured column leaves Kabul, ending nine years of military occupation since 1979The Soviet Union announces that all of its troops have left AfghanistanThe Soviet Union submits to the jurisdiction of the World CourtTim Berners-Lee produces the proposal document that will become the blueprint for the World Wide WebMass demonstrations in Hungary, demanding democracyThe Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union approves agricultural reforms allowing farmers the right to lease state-owned farms for lifeThe Soviet submarine K-278 Komsomolets sinks in the Barents Sea, killing 41A dispute over grazing rights leads to the beginning of the Mauritania–Senegal Border WarThe death of Hu Yaobang in China sparks the beginning of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protestsThe first crack in the Iron Curtain: Hungary dismantles 240 kilometres (150 mi) of barbed wire fencing along the border with AustriaThe first McDonald's restaurant in the USSR begins construction in Moscow. It will open on January 31, 1990Mikhail Gorbachev visits China, the first Soviet leader to do so since Nikita Khrushchev in the 1960s, ending the Sino-Soviet splitMore than 1,000,000 Chinese protestors march through Beijing demanding greater democracy, leading to a crackdownThe 1989 Ürümqi UnrestThe 10 metres (33 ft) high Goddess of Democracy statue is unveiled in Tiananmen Square by student demonstratorsFighting breaks out in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic between ethnic Uzbeks and the Turkish minority; more than 100 people are killed by June 15A crackdown takes place in Beijing on the army's approach to the square, and the final stand-off in the square is covered live on television1989 Polish legislative electionAn unknown Chinese protestor, "Tank Man", stands in front of a column of military tanks on Chang'an Avenue in Beijing, temporarily halting them, an incident which achieves iconic status internationally through images taken by Western photographersJiang Zemin becomes General Secretary of the Communist Party of China1989 Sudanese Coup d'étatA cease-fire in the Lebanese Civil War stops the violence that had killed 900 people since MarchVietnam announces that it has withdrawn the last of its troops from the State of Cambodia, ending an eleven-year occupationNearly 7,000 East Germans who had come to Prague on special refugee trains are allowed to leave for the West1989 Panamanian Coup d'état AttemptThe communist Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party votes to reorganise itself as a socialist party, to be named the Hungarian Socialist PartyThe first mass demonstration against the Communist regime in the GDR begins in Plauen, East Germany, the beginning of a series of mass demonstrations in the whole GDR which ultimately leads to the reunification of Germany in 1990In Leipzig, East Germany, protesters demand the legalisation of opposition groups and democratic reformsThe Communist leader of East Germany, Erich Honecker, is forced to step down as leader of the country after a series of health problems, and is succeeded by Egon KrenzThe Hungarian Republic is officially declared by President Mátyás Szűrös (replacing the Hungarian People's Republic), exactly 33 years after the Hungarian Revolution of 1956Half a million people demonstrate in the East German city of LeipzigThe border between East Germany and Czechoslovakia is reopenedEast German refugees arrive at the West German town of Hof after being allowed through CzechoslovakiaThe Alexanderplatz DemonstrationThe Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is establishedThe Communist government of East Germany resigns, although SED leader Egon Krenz remains as head of stateThe Fall of the Berlin Wall1989 Polish Presidential ElectionThe Iranian Presidential Election of 1989Pakistan is readmitted to the Commonwealth of Nations after leaving it in 1972Polish president Wojciech Jaruzelski nominates Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to be Prime Minister, the first non-Communist in power in 42 yearsThe Pan-European Picnic, a peace demonstration, is held at the Austro-Hungarian borderThe Baltic WayHungary removes border restrictions with AustriaIn the aftermath of the Chadian–Libyan conflict of 1978–87, representatives of Libya and Chad agree to let the International Court of Justice determine ownership of the Aouzou Strip, which has been occupied by Libya since 1973The Hungarian government opens the country's western border (with Austria) to refugees from East GermanyThe 1989 Burkinabé Coup d'état AttemptAfter 45 years of Communist rule in Bulgaria, Bulgarian Communist Party leader Todor Zhivkov is replaced by Foreign Minister Petar Mladenov, who changes the party's name to the Bulgarian Socialist PartyA peaceful student demonstration in Prague, Czechoslovakia, is severely beaten back by riot police. This sparks a revolution aimed at overthrowing the Communist government (it succeeds on December 29)Following a week of demonstrations demanding free elections and other reforms, General Secretary Miloš Jakeš and other leaders of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia resign. Jakeš is replaced by Karel UrbánekIn a meeting with Pope John Paul II, General Secretary of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev pledges greater religious freedom for citizens of the Soviet UnionA military coup attempt begins in the Philippines against the government of Philippine President Corazon C. Aquino. It is crushed by United States intervention ending by December 9The Second Malayan Emergency concludes with a peace agreement. The Malayan Communist Party disbands and Chin Peng remains in exile in Thailand until his death in 2013The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic becomes the first of the republics of the Soviet Union to abolish the Communist Party's monopoly on powerThe Romanian Revolution begins in Timișoara, initiated by the Hungarian minorityWorkers in the cities go on strike in protest against the Communist regime. On December 20 about 100,000 occupy TimișoaraThe United States invasion of Panama ("Operation Just Cause") is launched in an attempt to overthrow Panamanian dictator Manuel NoriegaThe Brandenburg Gate in Berlin is reopenedPoland's president signs the Balcerowicz Plan, ending the Communist system in Poland in favor of a capitalist system leading to abandonment of the Warsaw PactPoland becomes the first country in Eastern Europe to begin abolishing its state socialist economy. Poland also withdraws from the Warsaw PactGeneral Manuel Noriega is deposed as leader of Panama and surrenders to the American forcesIn the Lithuania SSR, 300,000 demonstrate for independenceThe National Assembly of Bulgaria votes to end one party rule by the Bulgarian Communist PartyThousands storm the Stasi headquarters in East Berlin in an attempt to view their government recordsThe League of Communists of Yugoslavia votes to give up its monopoly on powerFour months after their exit from power, the Polish United Workers' Party votes to dissolve itself and reorganize itself as the Social Democracy of the Republic of PolandThe first McDonald's in Moscow, Russian SFSR opens 8 months after construction began on May 3, 1989. 8 months later the first McDonald's in Mainland China is opened in ShenzhenF. W. de Klerk announces the unbanning of the African National Congress and promises to release Nelson MandelaThe Communist Party of the Soviet Union votes to end its monopoly of power, clearing the way for multiparty electionsRepresentatives of NATO and the Warsaw Pact meet in Ottawa for an "Open Skies" conference. The conference results in agreements about superpower troop levels in Europe and on German reunificationAn agreement is reached for a two-stage plan to reunite GermanyThe United Kingdom and Argentina restore diplomatic relations after 8 years. The UK had severed ties in response to Argentina's invasion of the Falkland Islands, a British Dependent Territory, in 1982The USSR agrees to withdraw all 73,500 troops from Czechoslovakia by July, 1991The Lithuanian SSR declares independence from the Soviet Union with the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of LithuaniaThe Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union approves changes to the Constitution of the Soviet Union to create a strong U.S.-style presidency. Mikhail Gorbachev is elected to a five-year term as the first-ever President of the Soviet Union on March 15Mikhail Gorbachev is elected as the first executive president of the Soviet UnionThe Soviet Union announces that Lithuania's declaration of independence is invalidEast Germany holds its first free electionsAfter 75 years of South African rule since World War I, Namibia becomes independentAfter its first free elections on March 18, the Estonian SSR declares the Soviet rule to have been illegal since 1940 and declares a transition period for full independenceIn the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the Socialist Republic of Slovenia holds Yugoslavia's first multiparty election since 1938. After the election, a center-right coalition led by Lojze Peterle forms Yugoslavia's first non-Communist government since 1945Lothar de Maizière becomes prime minister of East Germany, heading a conservative coalition that favors German reunificationThe Soviet Union apologizes for the Katyn massacreWest Germany and East Germany agree to merge currency and economies on July 1Lebanese kidnappers release American educator Frank H. Reed, who had been held hostage since September 1986The Latvian SSR declares independence from the Soviet UnionThe Estonian SSR restores the formal name of the country, the Republic of Estonia, as well as other national emblems (the coat of arms, the flag and the anthem)The pro-Soviet Intermovement attempts to take power in Tallinn, Estonia, but are forced down by local EstoniansEast Germany and West Germany sign a treaty to merge their economic and social systems, effective July 1The US and the USSR agree to end production of chemical weapons and to destroy most of their stockpiles of chemical weaponsThe first post-Communist presidential and parliamentary elections are held in RomaniaThe leaders of the Yemen Arab Republic and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen announce the unification of their countries as the Republic of YemenBoris Yeltsin is elected as the first ever elected president of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist RepublicGeorge H. W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev begin a four-day summit meeting in Washington, D.CU.S. President George H. W. Bush and Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev sign a treaty to end chemical weapon production and begin destroying their respective stocksViolence breaks out in the Kirghiz SSR between the majority Kyrgyz people and minority Uzbeks over the distribution of homestead landThe 1990 Sri Lankan Police MassacreThe Congress of People's Deputies of the Russian Federation formally declares its sovereigntyThe destruction of the Berlin Wall by East Germany officially starts, 7 months after it was opened the previous NovemberThe Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic is founded in MoscowCheckpoint Charlie is dismantledEast Germany and West Germany merge their economies, the West German Deutsche Mark becoming the official currency of the East also. The Inner German border (constructed 1945) also ceases to functionThe Serb Democratic Party (Croatia) declares the sovereignty of the Serbs in CroatiaU.S. President George H. W. Bush signs the Americans with Disabilities Act, designed to protect disabled Americans from discriminationBelarus declares its sovereignty, a key step toward independence from the Soviet UnionThe National Assembly of Bulgaria elects Zhelyu Zhelev as the first non-Communist President of Bulgaria in 40 yearsThe United Nations Security Council orders a global trade embargo against Iraq in response to its invasion of KuwaitThe South African government and ANC begin talks on ending Apartheid in South AfricaU.S. President Bush orders U.S. combat planes and troops to Saudi Arabia to prevent a possible attack by IraqIraq announces its formal annexation of KuwaitEgypt, Syria, and 10 other Arab states vote to send military forces to Saudi Arabia to discourage an invasion from IraqGambia, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone send peacekeepers to intervene in the First Liberian Civil WarU.S. President Bush calls up U.S. military reservists for service in the Persian Gulf CrisisEast Germany and West Germany announce they will unite on October 3The Armenian SSR declares its independence from the Soviet UnionTransnistria declares its independence from the Moldavian SSR; however, the declaration is not recognized by any governmentPremier of North Korea Yon Hyong-muk meets with President of South Korea Roh Tae-woo, the highest level contact between leaders of the two Koreas since 1945Sri Lankan Army soldiers massacre 158 civiliansPresident Bush and Soviet President Gorbachev meet in Helsinki to discuss the Persian Gulf crisisLiberian president Samuel Doe is captured by rebel leader Prince Johnson and killed in a filmed executionThe first Pizza Hut opens up in the Soviet UnionU.S. President George H. W. Bush delivers a nationally televised speech in which he threatens the use of force to remove Iraqi soldiers from KuwaitFirst Pizza Hut opens in the People's Republic of China, nearly 3 years after the first KFC opened there in 1987The two German states and the Four Powers sign the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany in Moscow, paving the way for German reunificationThe Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union grants Gorbachev special powers for 18 months to secure the Soviet Union's transition to a market economyEast Germany and West Germany reunify into a single GermanyThe first McDonald's restaurant is opened in Mainland China in Shenzhen, near Hong Kong.[14] Since 1979, Shenzhen has been a Special economic zoneSyrian military forces invade and occupy Mount Lebanon, ousting General Michel Aoun's government. This effectively consolidates Syria's 14 year occupation of Lebanese soilSoviet President Mikhail Gorbachev is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to lessen Cold War tensions and reform his nationA peace agreement which formally ended 28 years of Sarawak Communist insurgency in Malaysia was signed by North Kalimantan Communist Party insurgentsThe Supreme Soviet of the Kirghiz SSR selects Askar Akayev as the republic's first presidentSpace Shuttle Atlantis is launched on a classified U.S. military missionSoviet President Gorbachev proposes a radical restructuring of the Soviet government, including the creation of a Federal Council to be made up of the heads of the 15 Soviet republicsThe United Nations Security Council passes UN Security Council Resolution 678, authorizing military intervention in Iraq if that state does not withdraw its forces from Kuwait and free all foreign hostages by Tuesday, January 15, 1991The German federal election (the first election held since German reunification) is won by Helmut Kohl, who becomes Chancellor of GermanyPrime Minister of Bulgaria Andrey Lukanov and his government of former communists resign under pressure from strikes and street protestsThe National Assembly of Bulgaria elects Dimitar Iliev Popov as Prime Minister of BulgariaRamiz Alia, leader of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, following massive demonstrations by students and workers, announces that a free national election will be held next spring of 1991 with political parties other than the Party of Labour permitted; an opposition Democratic Party is formed the following dayThe first constitution of the Republic of Croatia is adoptedIn the Slovenian independence referendum, 88.5% of the overall electorate (94.8% of votes), with the turnout of 93.3%, support independence of the countryCzechoslovakia becomes the second Eastern European country to abandon its command economySalvadoran rebels shoot down a US Army helicopter and kill its surviving crewThe UN Security Council votes unanimously to condemn Israel's treatment of the PalestiniansGeorgian troops attack Tskhinvali, the capital of South Ossetia, starting the 1991–92 South Ossetia WarAn attempted coup by Tonton Macoute, an associate of former dictator Jean-Claude Duvalier, is thwarted by Loyalist troops in Haiti. On July 30, he is convicted by a jury of attempting to overthrow the country's first democratically elected governmentUS Secretary of State James Baker meets with the Foreign Minister of Iraq Tariq Aziz, but fails to produce a plan for Iraq to withdraw its troops from KuwaitThe US Congress passes a resolution authorizing the use of military force to expel Iraqi forces from KuwaitSoviet forces storm Vilnius to stop Lithuanian independence. The January Events occur in Lithuania and the time of barricades occurs in LatviaThe UN deadline for the withdrawal of Iraqi forces from occupied Kuwait expires, preparing the way for the start of Operation Desert StormOperation Desert Storm begins with air strikes against IraqNelson Mandela of the African National Congress and Mangosuthu Buthelezi of the Inkatha Freedom Party agree to end violence between the two organizationsHaiti's first democratically elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, is sworn in. He is ousted on September 30 and later reinstated in 1994. In response to the coup and in an effort to encourage the coup leaders to restore democracy, the U.S. expands trade sanctions on Haiti to include all goods except food and medicine on October 29Ground troops cross the Saudi Arabian border and enter Kuwait, thus starting the ground phase of the warVoters in Lithuania support independenceThe Visegrad Agreement, establishing cooperation to move toward free-market systems, is signed by the leaders of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and PolandThe Amiriyah Shelter BombingPresident of Albania Ramiz Alia dismisses the government headed by Prime Minister Adil Çarçani in an effort to stem pro-democracy protests. Fatos Nano is sworn in as Prime Minister two days laterIraq accepts a Soviet-proposed cease fire agreement. The U.S. rejects the agreement, but says that retreating Iraqi forces will not be attacked if they leave Kuwait within 24 hoursOn Baghdad radio, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein announces the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Kuwait. Iraqi soldiers set fire to Kuwaiti oil fields as they retreat; the fires last until November 7US President Bush declares victory over Iraq and orders a cease-fireIn the Estonian restoration of independence referendum and the Latvian independence and democracy poll, voters vote more than 3-to-1 in favor of independence from the Soviet UnionMassive demonstrations are held against Slobodan Milošević in Belgrade; two people are killed and tanks are deployed in the streets540,000 American troops begin to leave the Persian GulfIn the Salvadoran legislative election, the Nationalist Republican Alliance wins 39 of 48 seats in the Legislative Assembly of El SalvadorThe Emir of Kuwait, Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah, returns to Kuwait after seven months of exile in Saudi ArabiaGermany formally regains complete independence after the four post-World War II occupying powers (France, the UK, the US, and the USSR) relinquish all remaining rights to the countryThe US and Albania resume diplomatic relations for the first time since 1939In a national referendum, the people of the Soviet Union vote in favor of keeping the 15 Soviet republics together, with the pro-unity position gaining 77% of the vote. Six Union Republics effectively boycott the referendumThe Sierra Leone Civil War begins when the Revolutionary United Front attempts a coup against the Sierra Leone governmentAlbania holds its first multi-party elections. On April 22, the Social Democratic Party of Albania is foundedGeorgia votes for independence from the Soviet Union. Later on April 9, the Supreme Council declares independence from the Soviet UnionThe U.N. Security Council passes the Cease Fire Agreement, Resolution 687. The Resolution calls for the destruction or removal of all of Iraq's chemical and biological weapons, all stocks of agents and components, and all research, development, support and manufacturing facilities for ballistic missiles with a range greater than 150 km and production facilities; and for an end to its support for international terrorism. Iraq accepts the terms of the resolution on April 6Space Shuttle Atlantis is launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida and leaves an observatory to study gamma rays in orbit before returning to Earth on April 11. It is followed by Space Shuttle Discovery which is sent to study instruments related to the Strategic Defense Initiative from April 29 to May 6. Space Shuttle Columbia is launched on June 5, carrying the Spacelab into orbitThe first Soviet troops leave PolandThe European Economic Community lifts economic sanctions on South AfricaThe MPLA and UNITA agree to the Bicesse Accords, which are formally signed on May 31 in LisbonElizabeth II arrives in Washington, D.C. for a 13-day royal visit. Two days later, she becomes the first British monarch to address the U.S. CongressIn the Croatian independence referendum, voters in the Socialist Republic of Croatia vote to leave YugoslaviaIn Sriperumbudur, India, former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and 14 others are killed at a public meeting by a suicide bomberMengistu Haile Mariam, president of the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, flees Ethiopia to Zimbabwe, effectively bringing the Ethiopian Civil War to an endThe forces of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front seize the capital Addis AbabaDerg insurgents explode an ammunition dump in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia held by the new pro-US anti-communist Ethiopian governmentSouth Africa repeals the last legal foundations of apartheidAbout 200,000 people attend a parade of 8,800 returning Persian Gulf War troops in Washington, D.CBoris Yeltsin is elected President of the Russian SFSR; he officially begins his term on July 101991 Kokkadichcholai massacreParty of Labour of Albania is dissolved and succeeded by the Socialist Party of Albania, marking the end of communist rule in AlbaniaThe South African Parliament repeals the Population Registration Act, which had required racial classification of all South Africans at birthIn West Germany, the Bundestag votes to move the capital from Bonn to BerlinCroatia and Slovenia declare their independence from YugoslaviaComecon is dissolved in Moscow, Russia and, on July 1, the Warsaw Pact is officially disbanded in Prague, CzechoslovakiaFighting breaks out when the Yugoslav People's Army attacks secessionists in Slovenia. The war ends on July 7 following the Brioni AgreementUkraine celebrates its first Independence DayThe governments of Mauritania and Senegal sign a treaty ending the Mauritania–Senegal Border War, which had been fought since 1989U.S. President Bush and Soviet President Gorbachev sign START I, a treaty limiting strategic nuclear weaponsSoviet Special Purpose Police Unit (OMON) forces kill seven Lithuanian customs officials in Medininkai in the deadliest of the Soviet OMON assaults on Lithuanian border postsEstonia restores its independence from the Soviet Union, followed by Latvia the next day. Two days later, Iceland becomes the first nation to recognize their and Lithuania's independenceRussia restores the white-blue-red tricolour as its national flagUkraine declares independence from Soviet Union. Belarus follows suit the next day and Moldova declares independence on August 27Azerbaijan declares independence from Soviet Union. It is followed by Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan the next day and Tajikistan on September 9The US re-recognizes the independence of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania and reopens its embassies there. Four days later, the Soviet Union recognizes their independenceThe Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union self-dissolves, being replaced by Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union and State Council of the Soviet UnionThe Republic of Macedonia becomes independent, beginning a name dispute with GreeceThe Soviet Union announces plans to withdraw Soviet military and economic aid to CubaNorth Korea, South Korea, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, the Marshall Islands, and Micronesia join the UNArmenia declares independence from the Soviet Union. Nearly a month later on October 27, Turkmenistan declares its independence. Kazakhstan follows suit on December 16Representatives of the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front reach an agreement with President of El Salvador Alfredo Cristiani, setting the stage for the end of the warU.S. President Bush announces unilateral reductions in short-range nuclear weapons and calls off 24-hour alerts for long-range bombers. The Soviet Union responds with similar unilateral reductions on October 5Forces of the Yugoslav People's Army surround Dubrovnik, beginning the Siege of Dubrovnik, which lasts until May 31, 1992President Gorbachev condemns antisemitism in the Soviet Union in a statement read on the 50th anniversary of the Babi Yar massacres, which saw the death of 35,000 Jews in UkraineThe Yugoslav Air Force bombs the office of President of Croatia Franjo Tuđman. The following day, the Croatian Parliament cuts all remaining ties with YugoslaviaIn the Russian SFSR, the KGB is replaced by the SVR. It officially stops operations on November 6In the Bulgarian parliamentary election, the Union of Democratic Forces defeats the Bulgarian Socialist Party, leaving no remaining Communist governments in Eastern EuropeIn Paris, the Vietnam-backed government of the state of Cambodia signs an agreement with the Khmer Rouge to end the civil war and bring the Khmer Rouge into power despite its role in the Cambodian genocide. The deal ends the Cambodian–Vietnamese War and results in the creation of the U.N. Transitional Authority in CambodiaThe American Galileo spacecraft makes its closest approach to 951 Gaspra, becoming the first probe to visit an asteroidChina and Vietnam restore diplomatic relations after a 13-year rift which followed the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese WarThe CPSU and its republic-level division, the Communist Party of the Russian SFSR, are banned in the Russian SFSR by a presidential decreeCambodian Prince Norodom Sihanouk returns to Phnom Penh after 13 years of exileThe forces of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and Serb paramilitaries take the Croatian town of Vukovar after the 87-day Battle of Vukovar. They kill more than 260 Croatian prisoners of warThe Vukovar MassacreThe UN Security Council recommends Egypt's deputy prime minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali to be the next Secretary-General of the UNThe UN Security Council unanimously adopts a resolution opening the way to the establishment of peacekeeping operations in YugoslaviaUkrainians vote overwhelmingly for independence from the Soviet Union in a referendumIn the Białowieża Forest Nature Reserve in Belarus, leaders of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine sign an agreement ending the Soviet Union and establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its placeThe Paulin Dvor MassacreThe Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR denounces the Union Treaty of 1922 and ratifies the Belavezha AccordsUkraine becomes the first post-Soviet republic to decriminalize homosexualityThe UN General Assembly adopts UN General Assembly Resolution 46/86 which states that zionism is not racism, repealing a previous resolution adopted in 1975The North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NAC-C) meets for the first timeRussian SFSR President Boris Yeltsin sends a letter to UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, stating that Russia should be a successor to the collapsing Soviet Union within the UN OrganizationMikhail Gorbachev resigns as president of the Soviet Union, from which most republics have already seceded, anticipating the dissolving of the 74-year-old stateThe Russian SFSR officially renames itself the Russian FederationThe Supreme Soviet meets for the last time, formally dissolves the Soviet Union, and adjourns sine die, ending the Cold War. All remaining Soviet institutions eventually cease operation on December 31President of Russia Boris Yeltsin ends price controlsThe Nagorno-Karabakh Republic is proclaimed by the Armenians of Nagorno-KarabakhPresident of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia flees the country as a result of the military coupThe Yugoslav Air Force downs a helicopter, killing five military observers from the European CommunitiesJapan apologizes for forcing Korean women into sexual slavery during World War IIThe Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia begins to break up; Slovenia and Croatia gain independence and international recognition in some Western countriesEl Salvador officials and rebel leaders sign the Chapultepec Peace Accords in Mexico City, ending the 12-year Salvadoran Civil War that claimed at least 75,000 livesParamount Leader of China Deng Xiaoping speaks in Shenzhen during his southern tour, a move that would return China on its right-wing march towards free market economicsBoris Yeltsin announces that Russia will stop targeting cities of the United States and her allies with nuclear weapons. In return President George H. W. Bush announces that the United States and her allies will stop targeting Russia and the remaining communist states with nuclear weaponsNorth Korea signs an accord with the International Atomic Energy Agency allowing for international inspections of North Korea's nuclear power plantsPresident of the United States George H. W. Bush meets with President of Russia Boris Yeltsin at Camp David, where they formally declare that the Cold War is overThe government of Algeria declares a state of emergency and begins a crackdown on the Islamic Salvation FrontUkraine and four other nations in the Commonwealth of Independent States reject Russia's proposal to maintain unified armed forces. Ukraine, Moldova, and Azerbaijan announce they will go ahead with plans to create their own armed forcesIn Lebanon, Israeli helicopter gunships assassinate Abbas al-Musawi, the leader of Hezbollah, and his son, in retaliation for a February 14 raid that killed three Israeli soldiersThe United Nations Security Council approves Resolution 743 to send a UNPROFOR peacekeeping force to YugoslaviaThe Khojaly MassacreThe People's Republic of China ratifies the Nuclear Non-Proliferation TreatyPresident Boris Yeltsin announces the creation of a separate Russian army, leading to questions about the viability of the Commonwealth of Independent StatesPresident Boris Yeltsin announces the creation of a separate Russian army, leading to questions about the viability of the Commonwealth of Independent StatesWhite South Africans vote in favour of political reforms which will end the apartheid regime and create a power-sharing multi-racial governmentSpace Shuttle Atlantis takes off from Cape Canaveral carrying instruments designed to study global warmingThe Open Skies Treaty is signed in Helsinki, Finland to establish a program of unarmed survelliance flights over the 34 member states. It went into effect on January 1, 2002The Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina (without the presence of Serb political delegates) proclaims independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of YugoslaviaSerb troops, following a mass rebellion of Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina against the Bosnian declaration of independence from Yugoslavia, besiege the city of SarajevoApproximately 500,000 people march on Washington, D.C. in support of abortion rights in advance of oral arguments in the case of Planned Parenthood v. CaseyThe United States recognizes the independence of Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The European Communities also recognizes Bosnia and HerzegovinaThe Maraga MassacreThe National Assembly of Vietnam adopts the 1992 Constitution of the Socialist Republic of VietnamPresident of Afghanistan Mohammad Najibullah is ousted and detained by Muslim rebels moving towards Kabul, setting the stage for the civil war in Afghanistan (1992–96)The two remaining constituent republics of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia – Serbia and Montenegro – form a new state, named the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (which in 2003 became Serbia and Montenegro), bringing to an end the official state union of Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Montenegrins, Bosnian Muslims, and Macedonians that existed from 1918 (with the exception of an occupation period during World War II)Lithuania introduces its new currency, the talonasThe United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is adopted in New YorkProtests begin in Bangkok, Thailand, against the government of General Suchinda Kraprayoon, sparking a bloody crackdownUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 757 imposes economic sanctions on Yugoslavia in an effort to end its attacks on Bosnia and HerzegovinaA 'Joint Understanding' agreement on arms reduction is signed by U.S. President George H. W. Bush and Russian President Boris Yeltsin (this is later codified in START II)Nelson Mandela announces that the African National Congress will halt negotiations with the government of South Africa following the Boipatong massacre of June 17The Slovak National Council declares Slovakia an independent country, signaling the breakup of CzechoslovakiaAbkhazia declares independence from GeorgiaGeorgia becomes the 179th member of the United Nations after seceding from the Soviet Union the previous yearCanada, Mexico, and the United States announce that a deal has been reached on the North American Free Trade Agreement; the deal will be formally signed on December 17, 1992Operation Julin is the last nuclear test conducted by the United States at the Nevada Test SiteMexico establishes diplomatic relations with Vatican City, ending a break that lasted over 130 yearsThe government of Mozambique signs a truce with leaders of RENAMO, ending the 16-year-old Mozambican Civil WarLennart Meri becomes the first President of Estonia after regaining independence. The Estonian Government in Exile resigns on the next dayThe Communist Party of China promotes several market-oriented reformers to the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, signaling a defeat for hard-line ideologuesEmperor of Japan Akihito begins the first imperial visit of China, telling a Beijing audience he felt deep sorrow for the suffering of the Chinese people during World War IILithuania holds a referendum on its first constitution after declaring independence from the Soviet Union in 1990The Czech National Council adopts the Constitution of the Czech RepublicThe South Korean presidential election is won by Kim Young-sam, the first non-military candidate elected since 1961The Dissolution of CzechoslovakiaThe Jaffna lagoon MassacreIn Moscow, Presidents George H. W. Bush (United States) and Boris Yeltsin (Russia) sign the second Strategic Arms Reduction TreatyIraq refuses to allow UNSCOM inspectors to use its own aircraft to fly into Iraq and begins military operations in the demilitarized zone between Iraq and Kuwait, and the northern Iraqi no-fly zones. U.S. forces fire approximately 40 Tomahawk cruise missiles at Baghdad factories linked to Iraq's illegal nuclear weapons program. Iraq then informs UNSCOM that it will be able to resume its flights.Members of the right-wing Austrian Freedom Party of Austria split to form the Liberal Forum in protest against the increasing nationalistic bent of the partyLien Chan is named by Lee Teng-hui to succeed Hau Pei-tsun as Premier of the Republic of ChinaUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 808 is voted on, deciding that "an international tribunal shall be established" to prosecute violations of international law in Yugoslavia. The tribunal is established on May 25 by Resolution 827North Korea announces that it plans to withdraw from the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and refuses to allow inspectors access to nuclear sitesThe Kurdistan Workers' Party announces a unilateral ceasefire in IraqJiang Zemin becomes President of the People's Republic of ChinaThe Republic of Macedonia is admitted to the United NationsThe World Health Organization declares tuberculosis a global emergencyEritrea gains independence from EthiopiaEritrea and Monaco gain entry to the United NationsLarge protests erupt against Slobodan Milošević's regime in Belgrade; opposition leader Vuk Drašković and his wife Danica are arrestedTwenty-four Pakistani troops in the United Nations forces are killed in Mogadishu, SomaliaFollowing the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement's victory, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada becomes president of BoliviaIraq refuses to allow UNSCOM weapons inspectors to install remote-controlled monitoring cameras at two missile engine test standsZoran Lilić succeeds Dobrica Ćosić as President of YugoslaviaMore than 350,000 people rally in Berlin to protest right-wing violence against immigrants; stones and eggs are thrown at President of Germany Richard von Weizsäcker and Chancellor of Germany Helmut KohlRussian President Boris Yeltsin releases the flight data recorder (FDR) and cockpit voice recorder (CVR) of Korean Air Flight 007, which was shot down by the Soviets in 1983The Czechoslovakia Federal Assembly votes to split the country into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, starting on January 1, 1993The November Venezuelan Coup Attempt of 1992South Korea and South Africa reestablish diplomatic relations. South Korea previously had diplomatic relations with South Africa from 1961 to 1978, when they were severed by the former due to the latter's policy of apartheidUN Security Council Resolution 794 is unanimously passed, approving a coalition of United Nations peacekeepers led by the United States to form UNITAF, tasked with ensuring humanitarian aid gets distributed and establishing peace in SomaliaU.S. military forces land in SomaliaThe Cruise Missiles Strike on Iraq in June 1993U.S. President Bill Clinton orders a cruise missile attack on Iraqi intelligence headquarters in the Al-Mansur District of Baghdad, in response to an Iraqi plot to assassinate former U.S. President George H. W. Bush during his visit to Kuwait in mid-AprilUN inspection teams leave Iraq. Iraq then agrees to UNSCOM demands and the inspection teams returnNASA loses radio contact with the Mars Observer orbiter 3 days before the spacecraft is scheduled to enter orbit around MarsRussia completes removing its troops from LithuaniaFollowing initially secret talks from earlier in the year, PLO leader Yasser Arafat and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin shake hands in Washington, D.C. after signing a peace accordRussian troops withdraw from PolandThe Cambodian monarchy is restored, with Norodom Sihanouk as kingThe Sukhumi massacreThe Russian constitutional crisis culminates with Russian military and security forces clearing the White House of Russia Parliament building by force, quashing a mass uprising against President Boris YeltsinChina performs a nuclear test, ending a worldwide de facto moratoriumA coup in Burundi results in the death of president Melchior Ndadaye and sparks the Burundi Civil WarThe Maastricht Treaty takes effect, formally establishing the European UnionBosnian Croat forces destroy the Stari Most, or Old Bridge of Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina, by tank fireNASA launches the Space Shuttle Endeavour on a mission to repair an optical flaw in the Hubble Space TelescopeU.S. President Bill Clinton signs into law the North American Free Trade AgreementThe United Nations General Assembly votes unanimously to appoint a U.N. High Commissioner for Human RightsIsrael and the Vatican establish diplomatic relationsThe North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is establishedValeri Polyakov begins his 437.7-day orbit, eventually setting the world record for days spent in orbitU.S. President Bill Clinton and Russian President Boris Yeltsin sign the Kremlin accords, which stop the preprogrammed aiming of nuclear missiles toward each country's targets, and also provide for the dismantling of the nuclear arsenal in UkraineIn the aftermath of the Chadian–Libyan conflict, the International Court of Justice rules that the Aouzou Strip belongs to the Republic of Chad1st Markale Market ShellingThe Banja Luka incidentRwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundi President Cyprien Ntaryamira die when a missile shoots down their jet near Kigali, Rwanda. This is taken as a pretext to begin the Rwandan genocideSouth Africa adopts a new national flag, replacing the "Oranje, Blanje, Blou" flag that was used during apartheidThe Red Cross estimates that hundreds of thousands of Tutsi have been killed in RwandaSouth Africa holds its first fully multiracial elections, marking the final end of the last vestiges of apartheid. Nelson Mandela wins the elections and is sworn in as the first democratically elected president the following monthNelson Mandela is inaugurated as South Africa's first black presidentThe Republic of South Africa rejoins the Commonwealth after the first democratic election. South Africa left the then British Commonwealth in 1961NASA's Space Station Processing Facility, a new state-of-the-art manufacturing building for the International Space Station, officially opens at Kennedy Space CenterThe last Russian troops leave GermanyRwandan Patriotic Front troops capture Kigali, a major breakthrough in the Rwandan Civil WarAden is occupied by troops from North YemenThe Allied occupation of Berlin ends with a casing of the colors ceremony attended by U.S. President Bill ClintonRwandan Patriotic Front troops capture Gisenyi, forcing the interim government into Zaire and ending the Rwandan genocideIsrael and Jordan sign the Washington Declaration as a preliminary to signature on October 25 of the Israel–Jordan peace treaty, which formally ends the state of war that has existed between the nations since 1948Groups of protesters spread from Havana, Cuba's Castillo de la Punta ("Point Castle"), creating the first protests against Fidel Castro's government since 1959The Russian army leaves Estonia and Latvia, ending the last traces of Eastern Europe's Soviet occupationRussia and the People's Republic of China agree to de-target their nuclear weapons against each otherPresident Bill Clinton signs the Federal Assault Weapons Ban, which bans the manufacture of new firearms with certain features for a period of 10 yearsU.S. troops stage a bloodless invasion of Haiti to restore the legitimately elected leader, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, to powerThe President of the United Nations Security Council says that Iraq must withdraw its troops from the Kuwait border, and immediately cooperate with weapons inspectorsFollowing threats by the U.N. Security Council and the U.S., Iraq withdraws troops from its border with KuwaitVoters in Sweden decide to join the European Union in a referendumThe Angolan government and UNITA rebels sign the Lusaka ProtocolRussian president Boris Yeltsin orders troops into ChechnyaThe World Trade Organization (WTO) is established to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)Austria, Finland and Sweden join the European UnionThe Norwegian Rocket Incident21 Bosnian Serb commanders are charged with genocide and crimes against humanity in the United Nations' International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, a tribunal on human rights violations during the Wars in the BalkansUnited Nations Operation in Somalia II, the United Nations peacekeeping mission in Somalia, endsAstronaut Norman Thagard becomes the first American to ride into space aboard a Russian launch vehicle (the Soyuz TM-21), lifting off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in KazakhstanCosmonaut Valeri Polyakov returns after setting a record for 438 days in outer spaceMore than 170 countries agree to extend the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty indefinitely and without conditionsMrkonjić Grad incidentU.S. astronaut Norman Thagard breaks NASA's space endurance record of 14 days, 1 hour and 16 minutes, aboard the Russian space station MirSpace Shuttle Atlantis docks with the Russian Mir space station for the first time.According to UNSCOM, the unity of the U.N. Security Council begins to fray, as a few countries, particularly France and Russia, become more interested in making financial deals with Iraq than in disarming the countryIn response to UNSCOM's evidence, Iraq admits for first time the existence of an offensive biological weapons program, but denies weaponizationThe Navaly Church bombingThe NATO bombing campaign against Bosnian Serb artillery positions begins in Bosnia and Herzegovina, continuing into September. At the same time, ARBiH forces begin an offensive against the Bosnian Serb Army around Sarajevo, central Bosnia and Bosnian KrajinaNATO air strikes against Bosnian Serb forces continue, after repeated attempts at a solution to the Bosnian War failThe Million Man March is held in Washington, D.C. The event was conceived by Nation of Islam leader Louis FarrakhanQuebec independentists narrowly lose a referendum for a mandate to negotiate independence from CanadaThe last signal is received from NASA's Pioneer 11 spacecraftParticipants in the Yugoslav Wars begin negotiations at the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, OhioThe Dayton Agreement to end the Bosnian War is reached at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio (signed December 14)27 nations sign the Barcelona Treaty, creating the Union for the MediterraneanOperation Desert Storm officially endsThe Dayton Agreement is signed in Paris, officially ending the Bosnian WarNASA's Galileo Probe enters Jupiter's atmosphereIraqi scuba divers, under the direction of the United Nations Special Commission, dredge the Tigris near Baghdad. The divers find over 200 prohibited Russian-made missile instruments and componentsNATO begins peacekeeping in BosniaBosnian Serbs break off contact with the Bosnian government and with representatives of Ifor, the NATO localised force, in reaction to the arrest of several Bosnian Serb war criminalsCuban fighter jets shoot down two American aircraft belonging to the Cuban exile group Brothers to the Rescue. Cuban officials assert that they invaded Cuban airspaceThe Bosnian government declares the end of the Siege of SarajevoIraqi forces refuse UNSCOM inspection teams access to five sites designated for inspection. The teams enter the sites only after delays of up to seventeen hoursChechen rebels attack the Russian government headquarters in Grozny; 70 Russian soldiers and policemen and 130 Chechen fighters are killedChina begins surface-to-surface missile testing and military exercises off Taiwanese coastal areas. The United States government condemns the act as provocation, and the Taiwanese government warns of retaliation1996 Croatia USAF CT-43 crashMassacres of Hutus by Tutsis in Burundi take place with more than 450 killed within a few daysIn a common statement, the European Union officially recognises the Federal Republic of YugoslaviaThe Israeli government launches Operation Grapes of Wrath, consisting of massive attacks on Lebanon, in retaliation for prior terrorist attacks, and sparking off a violent series of retaliationsThe Qana MassacreIn reaction to the Qana Massacre, an Islamist group in Egypt open fire on a hotel, killing eighteen Greek tourists and injuring seventeen othersRussian President Boris Yeltsin meets with Chechnyan rebels for the first time and negotiates a ceasefire for the disputeMembers of the Armed Islamic Group in Algeria kill seven French Trappist monks, after talks with French government concerning the imprisonment of several GIA sympathisers break downThe Constitution of Ukraine is signed into lawBosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić relinquishes power to his deputy, Biljana PlavšićBoris Yeltsin is re-elected as President of Russia after the second round of electionsBosnian Serb President Radovan Karadžić resigns from public office in Republika Srpska after being indicted for war crimesThe 1996 Burundian Coup d'étatA pro-democracy demonstration supporting Megawati Sukarnoputri in Indonesia is broken up by riot policeNASA announces that the Allan Hills 84001 meteorite, thought to originate from Mars, may contain evidence of primitive lifeforms; further tests are inconclusiveBoris Yeltsin is sworn in at the Kremlin for a second term as President of RussiaData sent back by the Galileo space probe indicates there may be water on one of Jupiter's moonsOsama bin Laden writes "The Declaration of Jihad on the Americans Occupying the Country of the Two Sacred Places," a call for the removal of American military forces from Saudi ArabiaIraqi forces launch an offensive into the northern No-Fly Zone and capture ArbilThe 1996 cruise missile strikes on IraqThe Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia attack a military base in Guaviare, Colombia, starting three weeks of guerrilla warfare that will claim the lives of at least 130 ColombiansAlija Izetbegović is elected President of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the country's first election since the Bosnian WarU.S. President Bill Clinton signs the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty at the United NationsIn Afghanistan, the Taliban capture the capital city of Kabul, after driving out President Burhanuddin Rabbani and executing former leader Mohammad NajibullahTung Chee-hwa is appointed to become the new leader of Hong Kong after it reverts to Chinese rule on July 1, 1997 at the end a 99-year lease to the United KingdomGuatemala and the leaders of the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity sign a peace accord that ends the 36-year Guatemalan Civil WarTaliban forces retake the strategic Bagram Air Base, solidifying their buffer zone around KabulMadeleine Albright becomes the first female Secretary of State, after confirmation by the United States SenateTune-up and repair work on the Hubble Space Telescope is started by astronauts from the Space Shuttle DiscoveryThe 1997 Vavunathivu OffensiveThe National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China creates a new Chongqing Municipality, out of part of SichuanOmaria MassacreThe Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), CWC treaty enters into forceThe Russian–Chechen Peace Treaty is signedThe United States government acknowledges existence of the "Secret War" in Laos (1953–1975) during the Vietnam War, and dedicates the Laos Memorial in honor of Hmong and other "Secret War" veteransU.S. President Bill Clinton issues a formal apology to the surviving victims of the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male and their familiesThe Daïat Labguer (M'sila) MassacreAn unmanned Progress spacecraft collides with the Russian space station MirNASA's Pathfinder space probe lands on the surface of MarsIn Cambodia, Hun Sen of the Cambodian People's Party overthrows Norodom Ranariddh in a coupNATO invites the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland to join the alliance in 1999Si Zerrouk MassacreThe Beni Ali MassacreThe Rais massacreDeath of Diana, Princess of WalesAn Iraqi military officer attacks an UNSCOM weapons inspector on board an UNSCOM helicopter, while the inspector attempts to take photographs of unauthorized movement of Iraqi vehicles inside a site designated for inspectionWhile waiting for access to a site, UNSCOM inspectors witness and videotape Iraqi guards moving files, burning documents, and dumping waste cans into a nearby riverMostar Car BombingThe Wilaya of Relizane massacres of 30 December 1997Monetary Reform in Russia, 1998The Wilaya of Relizane Massacres of 4 January 1998The Lunar Prospector spacecraft is launched into orbit around the Moon, and later finds evidence for frozen water, in soil in permanently shadowed craters near the Moon's polesThe Sidi-Hamed MassacreIraqi President Saddam Hussein negotiates a deal with U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan, allowing weapons inspectors to return to Baghdad, preventing military action by the United States and BritainData sent from the Galileo probe indicates that Jupiter's moon Europa has a liquid ocean under a thick crust of iceNASA announces that the Clementine probe orbiting the Moon has found enough water in polar craters to support a human colony and rocket fueling stationThe Oued Bouaïcha MassacreAlbanian–Yugoslav Border AmbushSuharto (elected 1967) resigns after 32 years as President of Indonesia, effectively ending the New Order period. It is his 7th consecutive re-election by the Indonesian Parliament (MPR). Suharto's hand-picked Vice President, B. J. Habibie, becomes Indonesia's third presidentFormer Brigadier-General Ansumane Mané seizes control over military barracks in Bissau, marking the beginning of the Guinea-Bissau Civil War (1998–99)The Organisation of African Unity passes a resolution which states that its members will no longer comply with punitive sanctions applied by the UN Security Council against LibyaJapan launches a probe to Mars, joining the United States and Russia as an outer space-exploring nationIn Saint Petersburg, Nicholas II of Russia and his family are buried in St. Catherine Chapel, 80 years after he and his family were killed by the Bolsheviks in 1918The 1998 United States Embassy BombingsThe Government of North Korea adopts a military dictatorship on its 50th anniversaryVoyager 1 overtakes Pioneer 10 as the most distant man-made object from the Solar System, at a distance of 69.419 AU (1.03849×1010 km)A Russian Proton rocket is launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, carrying the first segment of the International Space Station, the 21-ton Zarya ModuleThe Space Shuttle Endeavour launches the first American component to the International Space Station, the 25,600 pounds (11,600 kg) Unity module on STS-88. It docks with Zarya two days laterDecember 14, 1998 Albanian–Yugoslav border ambushU.S. President Bill Clinton orders airstrikes on Iraq. UNSCOM withdraws all weapons inspectors from IraqThe euro currency is established and the European Central Bank assumes its full powersThe Mars Polar Lander is launched by NASAFormer Warsaw Pact members Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic join NATONATO launches air strikes against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, marking the first time NATO has attacked a sovereign stateA U.S. F-117 Nighthawk is shot down by Yugoslav forcesKosovo's main border crossings are closed by Yugoslav forces to prevent Kosovar Albanians from leavingNATO Bombing of Albanian Refugees near GjakovaThe Columbine High School MassacreUnited States Bombing of the Chinese embassy in BelgradeYugoslavia and NATO sign a peace treaty to end their hostilitiesNATO suspends its air strikes after Slobodan Milošević agrees to withdraw Yugoslav forces from KosovoNATO-led United Nations peacekeeping forces KFOR enter Kosovo, YugoslaviaNATO marines shoot three gunmen in Kosovo, Yugoslavia after being attacked by the latter, killing one of them and injuring the other twoNASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory is launchedThe Staro Gracko massacreNASA intentionally crashes the Lunar Prospector spacecraft into the Moon, thus ending its mission to detect frozen water on the lunar surfaceHundreds of Chechen guerrillas invade the Russian republic of Dagestan, triggering a short warThe Atlantique incident occurs as an intruding Pakistan Navy plane is shot down in India, sparking tensions between the two nations, coming just a month after the end of the Kargil WarIn Belgrade, tens of thousands of Yugoslavs rally to demand the resignation of Yugoslav President Slobodan MiloševićThe Second Chechen War beginsKiribati, Nauru and Tonga join the United NationsChina launches the first Shenzhou spacecraftNASA lost radio contact with the Mars Polar Lander, moments before the spacecraft entered the Martian atmosphereNASA launched the Terra platform into orbit, carrying 5 Earth Observation instruments, including ASTER, CERES, MISR, MODIS and MOPITTBoris Yeltsin resigned as president of Russia, leaving Prime Minister Vladimir Putin as the acting President.The United Nations' International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia sentences five Bosnian Croats to up to 25 years in prison for the 1993 killing of more than 100 Bosnian MuslimsThe Novye Aldi MassacreKursk Submarine DisasterOperation BarrasThe USS Cole BombingThe United States recognizes the Federal Republic of YugoslaviaBritish and U.S. forces carry out bombing raids, attempting to disable Iraq's air defense networkThe Taliban begins destruction of the Bamiyan BuddhasThe Hainan Island incidentThe Nepalese Royal MassacreThe People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation sign the 2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship ("Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation")The Bandaranaike Airport AttackThe Sbarro Restaurant Suicide BombingThe September 11 AttacksDeep Space 1 flies within 2,200 km of Comet BorrellyIn response to the September 11 attacks, the United States invades Afghanistan, with participation from other nations, thus officially beginning the War on TerrorNASA's Galileo spacecraft passes within 180 kilometres (110 mi) of Jupiter's moon IoU.S. President George W. Bush signs the Patriot Act into lawTaliban forces abandon Kabul, ahead of advancing Northern Alliance troopsIn the first such act since World War II, U.S. President George W. Bush signs an executive order allowing military tribunals against any foreigners suspected of having connections to terrorist acts or planned acts against the United StatesNorthern Alliance fighters take over the capital KabulOfficials announce that one of the Taliban prisoners captured after the prison uprising at Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan is John Walker Lindh, a United States citizenThe People's Republic of China joins the World Trade OrganizationThe People's Republic of China is granted permanent normal trade status with the United StatesThe Sierra Leone Civil War comes to a conclusion with the defeat of the Revolutionary United Front by government forcesNASA's 2001 Mars Odyssey space probe begins to map the surface of Mars using its thermal emission imaging systemUNITA guerrilla leader Jonas Savimbi is killed in clashes against government troops led by Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos in Moxico Province, Angola.[11] His death leads to the end of the Angolan Civil War on April 4Funeral of Queen Elizabeth The Queen MotherIn Moscow, United States President George W. Bush and Russian President Vladimir Putin sign the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty to replace the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty of 1972 and the START II Treaty of 1993Switzerland joins the United Nations as the 190th member state after rejecting a place in 1986General Robert Guéï leads an army mutiny in an attempt to overthrow Ivory Coast President Laurent Gbagbo, resulting in civil warEast Timor is admitted to the United Nations as the 191st member state;[37] it also changes its official longform name from "Democratic Republic of East Timor" to "Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste"The 2002 Bali BombingsThe United Nations Security Council unanimously adopts Resolution 1441, forcing Iraq to either disarm or face "serious consequences".[42] Iraq agrees to the terms of the resolution on November 13The 2002 Mombasa AttacksThe last signal from NASA's Pioneer 10 spacecraft is received, some 12.2 billion kilometers (7.6 billion mi) from EarthThe Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is renamed to "Serbia and Montenegro" (after its constituent states) after its leaders reconstitute the country into a loose state-union between Montenegro and Serbia, marking an end to the 73-year-long use of the name "Yugoslavia" by any sovereign stateThe War in Darfur begins after rebel groups rise up against the Sudanese governmentMalta approves joining the European Union in a referendumSlovenia approves joining the European Union and NATO in a referendumHungary approves joining the European Union in a referendumThe United States announces the withdrawal of its troops stationed in Saudi Arabia, and the redeployment of some at the Al Udeid Air Base in QatarRiyadh Compound BombingsLithuania approves joining the European Union in a referendumSlovakia approves joining the European Union in a referendumRwanda adopts a new constitution, which among other things, changes the country's official name from "Rwandese Republic" to "Republic of Rwanda"Poland approves joining the European Union in a referendumThe Czech Republic approves joining the European Union in a referendumWarring parties in the Democratic Republic of the Congo sign a peace accord, bringing an end to the Second Congo War, which left millions deadThe 2003 Marriott Hotel BombingThe Second Liberian Civil War comes to an end after President Charles Taylor resigns and flees the countryNATO takes over command of the peacekeeping force in Afghanistan, marking its first major operation outside Europe in its 54-year-historyThe first six-party talks, involving South and North Korea, the United States, China, Japan and Russia, convene to find a peaceful resolution to the security concerns of the North Korean nuclear weapons programEstonia approves joining the European Union in a referendumLatvia approves joining the European Union in a referendumThe Ain es Saheb AirstrikeChina launches Shenzhou 5, their first manned spaceflightThe 2003 Nasiriyah BombingGeorgian President Eduard Shevardnadze resigns after widespread protests engulf the country following a disputed parliamentary electionOperation Red DawnNASA's MER-A (Spirit) spacecraft landed on the surface of MarsNASA's MER-B (Opportunity) spacecraft has landed on the surface of MarsHaitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide is overthrown in a coup d'étatThe Ashura MassacreThe 2004 Madrid Train BombingsBulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia are admitted to NATO, the largest expansion of the organizationThe Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement is signed by the Sudanese government and two rebel groups, in order to put a pause on the War in DarfurThe European Union expands by 10 member states: Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and SloveniaThe U.S.-led coalition occupying Iraq, the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), transfers sovereignty to the Iraqi Interim GovernmentThe Russian Federation stops recognizing Soviet Union passports as legal identificationNASA's unmanned MESSENGER spacecraft is launched, with its primary mission being the study of MercuryEuropean heads of state sign in Rome the Treaty and Final Act, establishing the first European ConstitutionThe European Space Agency unmanned probe SMART-1 arrives at the Moon, becoming the first European satellite to fly to the Moon and orbit itNASA's hypersonic Scramjet breaks a record by reaching a velocity of about 7,000 mph (Mach 9.6) in an unmanned experimental flightThe Orange Revolution begins following a disputed presidential election in Ukraine where Viktor Yanukovych won against Viktor Yushchenko amid accusations of electoral fraud. A revote results in Yushchenko being declared the winnerThe Forward Operating Base Marez BombingNorth Korea announces that it possesses nuclear weapons as a protection against the hostility it says it perceives from the United StatesChina ratifies an anti-secession law, aimed at preventing Taiwan from declaring independenceThe President of Kyrgyzstan, Askar Akayev, is deposed following mass anti-government demonstrations and flees the countrySyria withdraws the last of its military garrison from Lebanon, ending its 29-year military occupation of the countryThe 7 July 2005 London BombingsThe 2005 Sharm El Sheikh Bombings21 July 2005 London BombingsThe Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is launched from Cape Canaveral, designed to explore MarsPeace Mission 2005, the first joint China–Russia military exercise, begins its eight-day training on the Shandong PeninsulaNorth Korea agrees to stop building nuclear weapons in exchange for aid and cooperationThe second manned Chinese spacecraft, Shenzhou 6, is launchedThe 2005 Constitution of Iraq is approved by Iraqi voters, which among other things, changes the official name of the country from "Iraqi Republic" to "Republic of Iraq"The 2005 Amman BombingsThe United Nations Climate Change conference is held in MontrealChad descends into civil war after various rebel forces, with support from Sudan, attack the capital, N'DjamenaThe Huygens spacecraft lands on Titan, the largest moon of SaturnNASA's Stardust mission successfully ends, the first to return dust from a cometNASA launches the first space mission to Pluto as a rocket hurls the New Horizons spacecraft on a nine-year journeySix aircraft manufacturing of Russia, were merged, including Ilyushin, Sukhoi and Tupolev, which United Aircraft Corporation of Russia has start operationNASA's Cassini–Huygens spacecraft discovers geysers of a liquid substance shooting from Saturn's moon Enceladus, signaling a possible presence of waterNASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter enters orbit around MarsMontenegro declares its independence from Serbia and Montenegro after a May 21 referendum and becomes a sovereign state. Two days later, the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro officially disbands after Serbia declares its independence as well, ending an 88-year union between the two states[23] and leaving Serbia as the successor country to the unionIsrael launches an offensive in the Gaza Strip in response to rocketfire by Hamas into Israeli territoryThe United States Armed Forces withdraws its forces in Iceland, thereby disbanding the Iceland Defense ForceThe 2006 Mumbai Train BombingsIsraeli troops invade Lebanon in response to Hezbollah kidnapping two Israeli soldiers and killing three others. Hezbollah declares open war against Israel two days laterThe 2006 Thai Coup d'étatThe 2006 Sadr City BombingsFelipe Calderón sends the Mexican military to combat the drug cartels and put down the violence in the state of Michoacán, initiating the Mexican Drug WarEthiopia admits its troops have intervened in SomaliaBulgaria and Romania join the European Union, while Slovenia joins the EurozoneThe 3 February 2007 Baghdad Market BombingNorth Korea agrees to shut down its nuclear facilities in Yongbyon by April 14 as a first step towards complete denuclearization, receiving in return energy aid equivalent to 50,000 tons of heavy fuel oilLatvian Prime Minister Aigars Kalvītis and Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov sign a border treaty between Latvia and Russia, officially demarcating the border between the twoThe 18 April 2007 Baghdad BombingsNASA's MESSENGER spacecraft makes its second fly-by of Venus en route to MercuryFive Bulgarian nurses were released from Libyan prison after eight and a half years spent behind bars in Benghazi and Tripoli, marking the end of the so-called "HIV trial in Libya"The Phoenix spacecraft is launched toward Mars to study its north poleThe 2007 Yazidi Communities BombingsOperation Outside the BoxAt 19:04:39 UTC, the unmanned MESSENGER space probe is at its closest approach during its first flyby of the planet MercuryStock markets around the world plunge amid growing fears of a U.S. Great Recession, fueled by the 2007 subprime mortgage crisisA peace deal is signed in Goma, Democratic Republic of the Congo, ending the Kivu conflictThe 2008 Kosovo Declaration of IndependenceThe Invasion of AnjouanNASA's unmanned Phoenix spacecraft becomes the first to land on the northern polar region of MarsOperation JaqueThe 2008 Mauritanian Coup d'étatStocks fall sharply Monday on a triptych of Wall Street woe: Lehman Brothers' bankruptcy filing; Merrill Lynch's acquisition by Bank of America; and AIG's unprecedented request for short-term financing from the Federal ReserveThe Islamabad Marriott Hotel BombingU.S. President George W. Bush signs the revised Emergency Economic Stabilization Act into law, creating a 700 billion dollar Treasury fund to purchase failing bank assetsThe 2008 Guinean Coup d'étatIsrael invades the Gaza Strip in response to rockets being fired into Israeli territory by Hamas and due to weapons being smuggled into the areaAustria, Japan, Mexico, Turkey and Uganda assume their seats on the United Nations Security CouncilHamas announces they will accept the Israel Defense Forces offer of a ceasefire, ending the conflictA protest movement in Iceland expands as the 2009 Icelandic financial crisis protests startIsrael withdraws from the Gaza Strip, officially ending its three-week war with Hamas.[7] However, intermittent air strikes by both sides continue in the following weeksSoldiers of Bangladeshi border security force Bangladesh Rifles (BDR) mutiny and take the commanding army officers and their families hostages at the force's headquarters in Pilkhana, Dhaka. 57 army officers are killed along with 17 civilians by the mutineerNASA's Kepler Mission, a space photometer that will search for extrasolar planets in the Milky Way galaxy, is launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, USAThe President of Madagascar, Marc Ravalomanana, is overthrown in a coup d'état, following a month of unrest in AntananarivoAlbania and Croatia are admitted to NATO, becoming the newest members of the organizationNorth Korea launches a rocket from its Tonghae Satellite Launching Ground, which it says is carrying the Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 satellite, prompting an emergency meeting of the United Nations Security CouncilFollowing more than a quarter-century of fighting, the Sri Lankan Civil War ends with the total military defeat of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil EelamNorth Korea announces that it has conducted a second successful nuclear test in North Hamgyong Province. The United Nations Security Council condemns the reported testThe outbreak of the H1N1 influenza strain, commonly referred to as "swine flu", is deemed a global pandemicMass protests erupt across Iran following a disputed presidential election in which Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was reelected president, the largest demonstrations in the country since the Iranian RevolutionNASA launches the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter / LCROSS probes to the Moon, the first American lunar mission since Lunar Prospector in 1998The 2009 Honduran Coup d'étatThe July 2009 Ürümqi RiotsThe 2009 Jakarta BombingsThe 2009 Boko Haram UprisingThe 2009 Guinea ProtestsThe 25 October 2009 Baghdad BombingsThe Maguindanao MassacreThe Treaty of Lisbon comes into forceThe December 2009 Baghdad BombingsAstronomers discover GJ 1214 b, the first-known exoplanet on which water could existThe Togo National Football team Bus AttackThe Chadian Civil War officially endsThe Smolensk Air DisasterProtests in Bangkok, Thailand, end with a bloody military crackdown, killing 91 and injuring more than 2,100The May 2010 Lahore AttacksThe Gaza flotilla RaidThe World Health Organization declares the H1N1 influenza pandemic over, saying worldwide flu activity has returned to typical seasonal patternsGermany makes final reparation payment for World War IBombardment of YeonpyeongThe 2011 Alexandria BombingThe Tunisian government falls after a month of increasingly violent protests; President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali flees to Saudi Arabia after 23 years in powerThe Domodedovo International Airport BombingEgyptian President Hosni Mubarak resigns after widespread protests calling for his departure, leaving control of Egypt in the hands of the military until a general election can be heldThe First Libyan Civil War startsCivil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War is triggered when 15 youths in Daraa are arrested for scrawling graffiti on their school wall denouncing the regime of President Bashar al-AssadHamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, King of Bahrain, declares a three-month state of emergency as troops from the Gulf Co-operation Council are sent to quell the civil unrestFormer Ivorian President Laurent Gbagbo is arrested in his home in Abidjan by supporters of elected President Alassane Ouattara, with support from French forces; this effectively ends the 2010–11 Ivorian crisis and civil warOperation Neptune SpearU.S. President Barack Obama announces that Osama bin Laden, the founder and leader of the militant group Al-Qaeda, was killed on May 2, 2011 (PKT, UTC+05) during an American military operation in PakistanSouth Sudan joins the United Nations as the 193rd memberThe United Nations declares a famine in southern Somalia, the first in over 30 yearsSpace Shuttle Atlantis lands successfully at Kennedy Space Center after completing STS-135, concluding NASA's Space Shuttle programNASA announces that its Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has captured photographic evidence of possible liquid water on Mars during warm seasonsLibyan leader Muammar Gaddafi is killed in Sirte, with National Transitional Council forces taking control of the city and ending the warThe Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity, the most elaborate Martian exploration vehicle to date, is launched from the Kennedy Space Center. It lands on Mars on August 6, 20122011 Attack on the British Embassy in IranNorth Korean leader Kim Jong-il dies of either a heart attack or stroke on his way to a field guidanceThe United States formally declares an end to the Iraq War. While this ends the insurgency, it begins anotherThe 2012 Khyber Agency BombingViolent protests occur in Bucharest, Romania, as two-day-old demonstrations continue against President Traian Băsescu's economic austerity measures. Clashes are reported in numerous Romanian cities between protesters and law enforcement officersThe European Union adopts an embargo against Iran in protest of its continued effort to enrich uraniumThe President of Mali, Amadou Toumani Touré, is ousted in a coup d'état after mutinous soldiers attack government offices2012 Guinea-Bissau Coup d'étatVladimir Putin is elected President of RussiaCuriosity, the Mars Science Laboratory mission's rover, successfully lands on MarsCanada officially cuts diplomatic ties with Iran by closing its embassy in Tehran, and orders the expulsion of Iranian diplomats from Ottawa, over support for Syria, nuclear plans and human rights abusesJanuary 2013 Pakistan BombingsThe French military begins a five-month intervention into the Northern Mali conflict, targeting the militant Islamist Ansar Dine groupNorth Korea conducts its third underground nuclear test, prompting widespread condemnation and tightened economic sanctions from the international communityCentral African Republic President François Bozizé flees to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, after rebel forces capture the nation's capital, BanguiBoston Marathon BombingThe 2013 Egyptian Coup d'étatFollowing the military coup in Egypt, two anti-coup camps are raided by the security forces, leaving 2,696 dead.[46] The raids were described by Human Rights Watch as "one of the world's largest killings of demonstrators in a single day in recent history"The Ghouta Chemical AttackWestgate Shopping Mall AttackThe unmanned Mars Orbiter Mission is launched by India from its launchpad in SriharikotaJoint Plan of ActionChinese unmanned spacecraft Chang'e 3, carrying the Yutu rover, becomes the first spacecraft to "soft"-land on the Moon since 1976 and the third ever robotic rover to do soFighting between ethnic Dinka and Nuer members of the presidential guard break out in Juba, South Sudan, plunging the country into civil war2013 Baghdad Christmas Day BombingsA launch of the communication satellite GSAT-14 aboard the GSLV Mk.II D5 marks the first successful flight of an Indian cryogenic rocket engineThe 2014 Bannu BombingRussia formally annexes Crimea after President Vladimir Putin signs a bill finalizing the processThe United Nations General Assembly passes Resolution 68/262, recognizing Crimea within Ukraine's international borders and rejecting the validity of the 2014 Crimean referendumChibok Schoolgirls KidnappingUnited States President Barack Obama's new economic sanctions against Russia go into effect, targeting companies and individuals close to Russian President Vladimir Putin2014 Jos Bombings2014 Thai Coup d'étatMay 2014 Ürümqi AttackApril 2014 Ürümqi AttackA Sunni militant group now calling itself the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (also known as ISIS, ISIL or Daesh) begins an offensive through northern Iraq, aiming to capture the Iraqi capital city of Baghdad and overthrow the Shiite government led by Prime Minister Nouri al-MalikiThe Camp Speicher MassacreThe Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant declares itself a caliphate2014 kidnapping and murder of Israeli teenagersThe Kidnapping and Murder of Mohammed Abu KhdeirBenny Tai Yiu-ting announces that Occupy Central is launched as Hong Kong's government headquarters is being occupied by thousands of protesters. Hong Kong police resort to tear gas to disperse protesters but thousands remainThe tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, One World Trade Center in New York City opens2014 Peshawar School MassacreCharlie Hebdo ShootingThe January 2015 Raid on KolofataAfter Houthi forces seize the presidential palace, Yemeni President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi resigns after months of unrestLeaders from Russia, Ukraine, Germany and France reach an agreement on the conflict in eastern Ukraine that includes a ceasefire and withdrawal of heavy weapons. However, several days later, the Ukrainian government and pro-Russian rebels claim that, within its first day, the ceasefire was broken 139 times, as both sides failed to withdraw their heavy weapons and fighting had continuedThe ancient city sites of Nimrud, Hatra and Dur-Sharrukin in Iraq are demolished by the Islamic State of Iraq and the LevantNASA's Dawn probe enters orbit around Ceres, becoming the first spacecraft to visit a dwarf planetThe Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant becomes allies with fellow jihadist group Boko Haram, effectively annexing the groupA Saudi Arabia-led coalition of Arab countries starts a military intervention in Yemen in order to uphold the Yemeni government in its fight against the Houthis' southern offensiveGarissa University College AttackISIS captures the ancient city of Palmyra in Syria2015 Sousse Attacks26 June 2015 Islamist Attacks2015 Kuwait Mosque BombingNASA's New Horizons spacecraft performs a close flyby of Pluto, becoming the first spacecraft in history to visit the distant worldThe Cuban ThawThe Suruç BombingAugust 2015 Kabul Attacks10 August 2015 Kabul Suicide Bombing2015 Tianjin explosions2015 Bangkok BombingThe 2015 Dongyin Explosion2015 Mina StampedeNASA announces that liquid water has been found on MarsKunduz hospital Airstrike2015 Ankara Bombings2015 Beirut Bombings2015 Russian Sukhoi Su-24 Shootdown2015 San Bernardino AttackThe Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition is formed in order to fight terrorismFollowing the fallout caused by the execution of Nimr al-Nimr, Saudi Arabia and several other countries end their diplomatic relations with IranJanuary 2016 Istanbul BombingThe World Health Organization announces an outbreak of the Zika virusNorth Korea launches a reconnaissance satellite named Kwangmyŏngsŏng-4 into space, condemned as a long-range ballistic missile testThe Joint Declaration of Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill2016 Brussels BombingsThe ESA and Roscosmos launch the joint ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter on a mission to MarsKilling of HarambeOrlando nightclub Shooting2016 Atatürk Airport AttackNASA's Juno spacecraft enters orbit around Jupiter and begins a 20-month survey of the planet2016 Nice Truck AttackNASA launches OSIRIS-REx, its first asteroid sample return mission. The probe will visit Bennu and is expected to return with samples in 2023The Colombian government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia—People's Army sign a revised peace deal, bringing an end to the Colombian conflictIstanbul nightclub ShootingNorth Korea prompts international condemnation by test firing a ballistic missile across the Sea of JapanAssassination of Kim Jong-nam2017 Westminster AttackThe Khan Shaykhun Chemical AttackIn response to a suspected chemical weapons attack on a rebel-held town, the U.S. military launches 59 Tomahawk cruise missiles at an air base in Syria. Russia describes the strikes as an "aggression", adding they significantly damage U.S.–Russia ties2017 Nangarhar AirstrikeManchester Arena BombingAmidst widespread criticism, the U.S. government announces its decision to withdraw from the Paris Climate Agreement in due time2017 London Bridge AttackThe 2017 Tehran AttacksAmerican student Otto Warmbier returns home in a coma after spending 17 months in a North Korean prison. He dies on June 19Iran's Islamic Revolution Guards Corps (IRGC) fire six surface-to-surface mid-range ballistic missiles from domestic bases targeting ISIL forces in the Syrian Deir ez-Zor Governorate in response to the terrorist attacks in Tehran earlier that monthThe Great Mosque of al-Nuri in Mosul, Iraq, is destroyed by the Islamic State of Iraq and the LevantRussia and China urge North Korea to halt its missile and nuclear programs after it successfully tested its first intercontinental ballistic missileMosul is declared fully liberated from the Islamic State of Iraq and the LevantThe 2017 Turku AttackRussian President Vladimir Putin expels 755 diplomats in response to United States sanctionsNorth Korea conducts its sixth and most powerful nuclear test2017 Las Vegas Shooting14 October 2017 Mogadishu BombingsRaqqa is declared fully liberated from the Islamic State of Iraq and the LevantAt the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, Xi Jinping assumes his second term as General Secretary (China's paramount leader), and the political theory Xi Jinping Thought is written into the party's constitutionBoth Deir ez-Zor in Syria and Al-Qa'im in Iraq are declared liberated from ISIL on the same day2017 Sinai Mosque AttackThe United States officially recognizes Jerusalem as Israel's capitalThe Iraqi military announces that it has "fully liberated" all of Iraq's territory from "ISIS terrorist gangs" and retaken full control of the Iraqi-Syrian borderThe UN Security Council votes 15–0 in favor of additional sanctions on North Korea, including measures to slash the country's petroleum imports by up to 90%Turkey, led by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, announces the beginning of a military offensive to capture a portion of northern Syria from Kurdish forces, amidst the ongoing Kurdish–Turkish conflictStoneman Douglas High School Shooting2018 Russian Air Force Antonov An-26 CrashPresident of the United States Donald Trump accepts an invitation from North Korean leader Kim Jong-un for a meeting in May to discuss the denuclearisation of North KoreaChina's government approves a constitutional change that removes term limits for its leaders, granting Xi Jinping the status of "President for Life". Xi is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (paramount leader)In response to gun violence in the United States, and particularly triggered by the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida, thousands of high school students across the country participate in an organized protest they called the National School WalkoutIn the Russian presidential election, Vladimir Putin is elected for a fourth termCarcassonne and Trèbes AttackThe March for Our LivesNorth Korean supreme leader Kim Jong-un meets Chinese paramount leader Xi Jinping, leaving the country for the first time since assuming office in 20112018 Missile Strikes against SyriaNASA's Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) is launchedKim Jong-un crosses into South Korea to meet with President Moon Jae-in, becoming the first North Korean leader to cross the Demilitarized Zone since its creation in 1953NASA's unmanned space probe InSight is launched. It landed on Mars in November and uses a drill to conduct geological scienceU.S. President Donald Trump announces his intention to withdraw the United States from the Iranian nuclear agreement.[47] In a statement, former U.S. President Barack Obama calls the move "a serious mistake"The 2018 North Korea–United States summit is held in Singapore. It is the first summit between a United States President and the North Korean leaderThe United States announces it will withdraw from the United Nations Human Rights CouncilThe 2018 Kivu Ebola outbreak begins in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It becomes the second-deadliest outbreak of the Ebola virus on November 29, surpassed only by the 2013 West African Ebola virus epidemicSyria Missile Strikes (September 2018)Ahvaz Military Parade AttackMany nations around the world, particularly ones in Europe and the Commonwealth, along with the United States, commemorate the ending of the World War I centenary with Armistice Day, Veterans Day, and Remembrance Day ceremonies, speeches, parades, and memorialsNASA's InSight probe successfully lands on the surface of Mars2019 Gabonese Coup d'état attemptVenezuela enters a presidential crisis as Juan Guaidó and the National Assembly declare incumbent President Nicolás Maduro "illegitimate"The U.S. Justice Department charges Chinese tech firm Huawei with multiple counts of fraud, raising U.S.–China tensionsU.S. President Donald Trump confirms that the U.S. will leave the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty of 1987, citing Russian non-compliance.[11] The next day, Russia follows suit with suspension of its obligations to the treatyAnti-government protests demanding the resignation of Haitian President Jovenel Moïse begin in several cities across the countryPresident Maduro severs diplomatic ties with Colombia as humanitarian aid attempts to enter the country across the borderVenezuela expels German ambassador Daniel Kriener for his alleged meddling in internal affairsThe Libyan National Army (LNA) launches a surprise offensive in western Libya, moving units towards the Government of National Accord-held capital Tripoli and capturing GharyanThe 2019 Sudanese Coup d'état2019 Sri Lanka Easter Bombings2019 Venezuelan Uprising AttemptThe Syrian Army launches a major ground offensive against one of the last rebel strongholds in the countryMay 2019 Gulf of Oman IncidentU.S. President Donald Trump, during an official state visit to Japan, becomes the first foreign leader to meet with Japanese emperor NaruhitoThe Khartoum MassacreThe African Union suspends Sudan's membership "with immediate effect" after the Khartoum massacreOver 1 million people in Hong Kong protest against proposed legislation regarding extradition to mainland China. It is the largest protest in Hong Kong since the 1997 handover12 June 2019 Hong Kong ProtestJune 2019 Gulf of Oman IncidentHong Kong announces it will indefinitely suspend the controversial extradition bill, but protests continue, this time calling for the total withdrawal of the bill and the resignation of Chief Executive Carrie Lam2019 Konduga Bombings2019 Iranian Shoot-down of American droneAmhara Region Coup d'état AttemptDuring the annual July 1 protests that mark the anniversary of the British handover of the city to China, a group of a few hundred protesters stormed the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, defacing various portraits and destroying furniture before being dispersed by police using tear gas2019 Tajoura Migrant Center AirstrikeThe Clayton–Bulwer Treaty is signed by the United States and Great Britain, allowing both countries to share Nicaragua, and not claim complete control over the proposed Nicaragua CanalHong Xiuquan orders the general mobilisation of rebel forces in ChinaMírzá 'Alí-Muhammad, known as the Báb, is executed by a firing squad in Tabriz, Persia, for claiming to be a prophetVice President Millard Fillmore becomes the 13th President of the United States upon the death of President Zachary Taylor, aged 65Inauguration of Millard FillmoreCalifornia is admitted as the 31st U.S. stateThe Fugitive Slave Law is passed by the United States CongressHarriet Tubman becomes an official conductor of the Underground RailroadDelegate Edward Ralph May delivers a speech on behalf of African-American suffrage, to the Indiana Constitutional ConventionThe first clashes of the Taiping Rebellion occur, between the Imperialist militia and the Heavenly ArmyThe treaty known as the Punctation of Olmütz is signed in Olomouc. It means diplomatic capitulation of Prussia to the Austrian Empire, which takes over the leadership of the German ConfederationAsasey Hotel AttackThe World Health Organization (WHO) declares the Kivu Ebola epidemic to be a public health emergency of international concernThe Iranian Navy of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps captures British tanker Stena Impero and temporarily seizes British-operated and Liberian-flagged tanker Mesdar in the Persian Gulf. The British Foreign Secretary, Jeremy Hunt, warns there will be "serious consequences" if Iran does not release the tanker2019 Yuen Long AttackThe United States officially withdraws from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty established with Russia in 19872019 Cairo BombingAmid ongoing protests, Hong Kong is hit by the first general strikes of their kind since 19672019 Papua protests erupt, mainly across Indonesian Papua, in response to an incident in Surabaya where a group of Papuan students were arrested for alleged disrespect of the Indonesian flag. In Jayapura, Sorong, Fakfak, Timika and Manokwari, protests turned violent, with various private buildings and public facilities being damaged or burned. The protests and unrest were described by Reuters as "the most serious civil unrest in years over perceived racial and ethnic discriminationAstronomers announce the detection of water in the atmosphere of exoplanet K2-18b, the first such discovery for an exoplanet in the habitable zone around a star2019 Abqaiq–Khurais AttackAn international strike and protest led by young people and adults is held three days before the latest UN Climate Summit, to demand action be taken to address the climate crisis. The event is one of the largest climate mobilizations in historyA protester is shot in the chest with a live round of ammunition and critically injuredHong Kong Chief Executive Carrie Lam and the Chief Executive in Council invokes the Emergency Regulations Ordinance and banning the face mask in public gatherings with immediate effect91 people are killed by police during a week of demonstrations in IraqThe Government of Ecuador, headed by President Lenín Moreno, moves to Guayaquil as the Carondelet Palace in Quito is overtaken by protesters and chaos persists in the capitalPresident Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey announces a military invasion of north-eastern Syria, targeting the SDF and other Kurdish militiasNASA astronauts Jessica Meir and Christina Koch conduct the first all-female spacewalk outside of the International Space StationRiots in Chilean capital city Santiago erupt as civil unrest escalated as a reaction to a series of economic measures and Government's declarations labeled as abuse by protesters2019 Fada N'gourma AttackA traffic officer shot a youth in Sai Wan Ho during city-wide strike.[247] A man was also set on fire by protesters on the same dayThe Chinese University of Hong Kong officially announces a premature end to the semester as a result of large-scale protests and civil unrest. Besides CUHK, several Hong Kong universities switch to online learning and suspend on-campus class. The Education Bureau in Hong Kong officially announces to close all schools in Hong Kong due to the ongoing protestsPolice use tear gas and water cannons against protesters who try to break through cordons and reach The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, which is at the center of a week-long standoff between demonstrators and law enforcement. Protesters fight back with Molotov cocktails, arrows, and bricksHuman Rights Watch and Amnesty International issue reports on Chile's situation denouncing grave human rights violations, including excessive violence use and detention abuses by police forces.[266][267] Among police brutality acts there are records of police agents firing non-lethal ammunition to protesters' faces against provider's regulations, resulting in more than 200 people with severe eye trauma and more than 50 requiring prosthetic eyes2019 Chilean Air Force C-130 CrashThe United States founds the United States Space Force, a branch of the United States Armed Forces dedicated to space warfareDecember 2019 Mogadishu BombingChina informs the World Health Organization of an outbreak of a novel coronavirus in Wuhan, the ninth most populous Chinese cityHenry Clay introduces the Compromise of 1850 to the United States CongressUnited States Senator Daniel Webster gives his "Seventh of March" speech, in which he endorses the Compromise of 1850, in order to prevent a possible civil warHong Xiuquan officially begins the Taiping RebellionIn Boston, Massachusetts, members of the anti-slavery Boston Vigilance Committee rescue fugitive slave Shadrach Minkins from a courtroom, following his arrest by U.S. marshalsThe Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations in the Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, London is opened by Queen Victoria (it runs until October 18)The yacht America wins the first America's Cup race, off the coast of England1851 French Coup d'étatThe Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., burnsThe Battle of LoncomillaPresident Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte proclaims a new constitution for the French Second RepublicThe United Kingdom recognizes the independence of the TransvaalThe Battle of CaserosUncle Tom's Cabin, by Harriet Beecher Stowe, is published in book form in BostonTaiping forces begin the siege of GuilinThe Siege of Guilin is liftedTaiping forces enter HunanFrederick Douglass delivers his famous speech, "What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?", in Rochester, New YorkThe Revolution of 11 September 1852The Taiping army takes Hanyang and begins the siege of WuchangThe Taiping army takes HankouZeng Guofan is ordered to assist the governor of Hunan, in organising a militia force to search for local banditsThe Taiping army occupies WuchangTaiping forces assemble at Hanyang, Hankou and Wuchang, for the march on NanjingA rebel army of around 750,000 seizes Nanjing, killing 30,000 Imperial troopsThe Northern Expeditionary Force crosses the Yellow RiverIesada succeeds his father Ieyoshi, as Japanese shōgun. The Late Tokugawa shogunate (the last part of the Edo period in Japan) beginsThe Ottoman army crosses the Danube into Vidin/Calafat, WallachiaThe Taiping Northern Expeditionary Force comes within 3 miles (4.8 km) of TianjinThe Battle of OltenițaThe Battle of SinopFrench minister de Bourboulon arrives at the Heavenly Capital, aboard the CassiniMexican troops force William Walker and his troops to retreat to SonoraThe British recognize the independence of the Orange Free State in Southern Africa; its official independence is declared six days later in the Orange River ConventionSlavery is abolished in VenezuelaThe United Kingdom declares war on RussiaFrance declares war on RussiaUS Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry signs the Convention of Kanagawa with the Japanese government (the Tokugawa shogunate), opening the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American tradeUnited States diplomatic minister Robert McLane arrives at the Heavenly Capital aboard the American warship USS SusquehannaThe Kansas–Nebraska Act becomes law (replacing the Missouri Compromise of 1820), creating the Kansas Territory and the Nebraska Territory, west of the State of Missouri and the State of Iowa. The Kansas–Nebraska Act also establishes that these two new Territories will decide either to allow or disallow slavery, depending on balloting by their residents (these areas would have been strictly "free territory" under the Missouri Compromise, which allowed slavery in the State of Missouri but disallowed it in anyBattle of BomarsundThe Battle of the AlmaThe Battle of Balaclava,The Battle of InkermanA Taiping army of 350,000 invades AnhuiLarge-scale Bleeding Kansas violence begins, with events leading to the 'Wakarusa War' between antislavery and proslavery forcesU.S. President Franklin Pierce declares the new Free-State Topeka government in "Bleeding Kansas" to be in rebellionThe Battle of SeattleThe signing of the Treaty of Thapathali concludes the warSuspecting treachery on the part of East King Yang Xiuqing, Shi Dakai garrisons Anhui and begins his march back to the Heavenly Capital, having defeated a strong Xiang Army detachmentThe Treaty of Paris is signed, ending the Crimean WarThe Sacking of LawrenceThe Caning of Charles SumnerThe Battle of Black JackShi Dakai arrives at NanjingThe Battle of OsawatomieWei Changhui and Qin Rigang assassinate Yang XiuqingThe Second Opium War between several western powers and China begins, with the Arrow Incident on the Pearl RiverWar is declared between Great Britain and PersiaShi Dakai arrives at the Heavenly Capital once more with 100,000 men, and demands that Wei Changhui and Qin Rigang be executed. Shi subsequently becomes head of the governmentThe Luxembourg Coup of 1856The Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States is promulgatedFrance and the United Kingdom formally declare war on China, in the Second Opium WarDred Scott v. SandfordThe Anglo-Persian War endsIndian combatants capture Delhi from the British East India CompanyThe second massacre at Kanpur takes placeIn India, British forces recapture Delhi,[7] compelling the surrender of Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal emperorBritish troops retake LucknowThe Marais des Cygnes MassacreThe Treaty of Tientsin is signed, ending the first part of the Second Opium WarThe last rebels surrender in GwaliorA peace treaty ends the Indian RebellionThe United States and Japan sign the Treaty of Amity and Commerce, negotiated by Townsend HarrisThe Government of India Act, passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, transfers the territories of the British East India Company and their administration to the direct rule of the British Crown, through a Secretary of State for IndiaThe Battle of MagentaThe Battle of SolferinoBy the preliminary treaty signed at Villafranca, Italy, Lombardy is ceded to the French (who immediately cede it to Sardinia), while the Austrians keep Venetia, and the French promise to restore the Central Italian rulers expelled in the course of the war. This brings the Austro-Sardinian War effectively to a closeThe Treaty of Zürich, reaffirming the terms of the Treaty of Villafranca, brings the Austro-Sardinian War to an official closeMilitant abolitionist leader John Brown is hanged for his October 16 raid on Harpers Ferry, West VirginiaThe first Japanese ambassadors to the United States arrive in San FranciscoThe Sakuradamon IncidentThe Battle of CastelfidardoThe Battle of the VolturnoThe first Convention of Peking formally ends the Second Opium War1860 United States Presidential ElectionSouth Carolina becomes the first state to secede from the United StatesIn Montgomery, Alabama, the Provisional Confederate States Congress is formed by representatives from the first seven break-away statesThe Confederate States of America are formed, comprising the first seven break-away StatesJefferson Davis is elected Provisional President of the Confederate States of America, by the Weed Convention at Montgomery, AlabamaAlexander II, Czar of Russian Empire, made a law against the serfdomIn Montgomery, Alabama, Jefferson Davis is inaugurated as the provisional president of the Confederate States of AmericaThe Baltimore PlotThe Emancipation Reform of 1861 in RussiaAbraham Lincoln is sworn in, as the 16th President of the United StatesThe "Stars and Bars" is adopted as the flag of the Confederate States of AmericaThe Constitution of the Confederate States of America is adoptedThe Tsushima IncidentThe Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed by the new Parliament, with Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia becoming its kingAlexander Stephens, Vice President of the Confederacy, gives the infamous Cornerstone Speech in Savannah, Georgia, in which he declares that slavery is the natural condition of blacks, and the foundation of the ConfederacyConfederate Arizona: convention in present-day Tucson ratified the ordinance of secession of southern part of New Mexico TerritoryFort Sumter surrenders to Southern forcesPresident Abraham Lincoln issues a Proclamation calling for 75,000 men to confront in the South, "combinations too powerful to be suppressed in the ordinary way"Robert E. Lee resigns his commission in the United States Army, in order to command the forces of the state of Virginia1861 Bezdna UnrestThe Union Army arrives in Washington, D.C.President Abraham Lincoln suspends the writ of habeas corpus in the United StatesRichmond, Virginia is named the capital of the Confederate States of AmericaQueen Victoria of the United Kingdom issues a "proclamation of neutrality", which recognizes the breakaway states as having belligerent rightsThe state of Virginia's ordinance of secession from the United States is ratified in a referendum held on May 23, 1861The Confederate States sign a Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws in Indian TerritoryThe Battle of Corrick's FordThe First Battle of Bull RunThe Crittenden–Johnson Resolution is passed by the U.S. Congress, stating that the war is being fought to preserve the Union, and not to end slaveryGeorge B. McClellan assumes command of the Army of the Potomac, following the disastrous Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull RunIn order to help pay for the war effort, the United States government issues the first income tax as part of the Revenue Act of 1861 (3% of all incomes over US$800; rescinded in 1872)The Battle of Wilson's CreekConfederate General Leonidas Polk invades neutral Kentucky, prompting the state legislature to ask for Union assistanceForces under Union General Ulysses S. Grant bloodlessly capture Paducah, Kentucky, which gives the Union control of the mouth of the Tennessee RiverThe Battle of PavónThe Battle of Santa Rosa IslandThe Battle of Ball's BluffCiting failing health, 75-year-old Union General Winfield Scott resigns as Commander of the United States ArmyU.S. President Abraham Lincoln appoints George B. McClellan as commander of the Union Army, replacing Winfield ScottJefferson Davis is elected president of the Confederate States of AmericaThe Battle of BelmontTrent AffairConfederate President Jefferson Davis appoints Judah Benjamin Secretary of WarKentucky is accepted into the Confederate States of AmericaPublic Resolution 82, containing a provision for a Navy Medal of Valor, is signed into law by President Abraham LincolnFrench, Spanish, and British forces arrive in Veracruz, MexicoThe first U.S. ironclad warship, USS Monitor, is launchedJulia Ward Howe's Battle Hymn of the Republic is published for the first time in the Atlantic MonthlyThe Battle of Fort HenryJefferson Davis is officially inaugurated in Richmond, Virginia, to a 6-year term as president of the Confederate States of AmericaThe ironclad CSS Virginia (formerly USS Merrimack) is launched at Hampton Roads, Virginia; the Battle of Hampton Roads starts the same dayThe U.S. federal government forbids all Union army officers from returning fugitive slaves, thus effectively annulling the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, and setting the stage for the Emancipation ProclamationThe Spanish and the British end their alliance with FranceThe battle begins when Union forces under General George B. McClellan close in on the Confederate capital of Richmond, VirginiaThe Battle of Cross KeysThe Battle of Beaver Dam CreekU.S. President Abraham Lincoln signs into law the Pacific Railroad Acts, authorizing construction of the First Transcontinental RailroadThe Russian State Library is founded, as The Library of the Moscow Public MuseumThe Battle of Baton RougeThe Confederate ironclad CSS Arkansas is scuttled on the Mississippi River, after suffering damage in a battle with USS Essex, near Baton Rouge, LouisianaThe Battle of Cedar MountainU.S. President Abraham Lincoln meets with a group of prominent African-Americans, the first time an American President has done so. He suggests that Black people should migrate to Africa or to Central America, but this advice is rejectedDuring an uprising in Minnesota, Dakota warriors decide not to attack heavily defended Fort Ridgely, and instead turn to the settlement of New Ulm, killing white settlers along the wayThe Battle of ChantillyU.S. President Abraham Lincoln reluctantly restores Union General George B. McClellan to full command, after General John Pope's disastrous defeat at the Second Battle of Bull RunThe Battle of AntietamThe Battle of IukaOtto von Bismarck becomes prime minister of Prussia, following refusal by the country's Landtag to accept the military budgetThe preliminary announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation is made, by U.S. President Abraham LincolnPrussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck delivers his Blood and Iron speech to the Prussian LandtagThe Battle of PerryvilleThe Great Locomotive ChaseThe Battle of PueblaThe ironclad CSS Virginia is scuttled in the James River northwest of Norfolk, VirginiaU.S. President Abraham Lincoln signs a bill into law creating the U.S. Bureau of Agriculture (later renamed U.S. Department of Agriculture)U.S. President Abraham Lincoln signs the Homestead Act into lawConfederate troops evacuate Fort Pillow on the Mississippi River, leaving the way clear for U.S. Army troops to capture Memphis, TennesseeThe First Battle of MemphisOtto is deposed as King of GreecePresident Abraham Lincoln removes George B. McClellan as commander of the Union ArmyPresident Abraham Lincoln approves the plan by General Ambrose Burnside to capture the Confederate capital city of Richmond, Virginia. This plan leads to a disastrous Union defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13)The Battle of Cane HillIn his State of the Union address, President Abraham Lincoln reaffirms the necessity of ending slavery, as he ordered ten weeks earlier in his Emancipation ProclamationPresident Abraham Lincoln signs an act that admits West Virginia to the Union, thus dividing Virginia into two. Meanwhile, the Battle of Stones River opens near Murfreesboro, TennesseeAbraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation during the second year of the American Civil War, making the abolition of slavery in the Confederate states an official war goal. It proclaims the freedom of 3.1 million of the nation's four million slaves and immediately frees 50,000 of them, with the rest freed as Union armies advanceFrench forces bombard VeracruzThe January Uprising breaks out in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus. The aim of the national movement is to liberate the Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth from Russian occupationThe Bear River MassacreThe Siege of Vicksburg beginsThe Siege of Port Hudson, Louisiana by Union forces beginsThe 54th Massachusetts, the first African-American regiment, leaves Boston to fight for the UnionFrench forces enter Mexico CityThe Battle of Brandy StationThe Battle of AldieUlysses S. Grant and the Union army capture the Confederate city Vicksburg, Mississippi, after the town surrenders, following a 47-day siegeThe Siege of Port Hudson ends, and the Union controls the entire Mississippi River for the first timeThe Battle of Honey SpringsRadicals in Lithuania, Belarus, Latvia, northern Ukraine and western Russia join the January UprisingPolish peasants are massacred by Russian hussars at Čysta Būda, near MarijampolėThe "Committee of the Five" holds their first meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, which is regarded as the foundation of the International Committee of the Red Cross, following the lead of humanitarian businessman Henry DunantAbraham Lincoln signs the National Banking Act into lawThe U.S. National Conscription Act is signed, leading to the New York City draft riots in JulyThe SS Georgiana is destroyed on her maiden voyage, while attempting to run the blockade into Charleston, South Carolina. The wreck is discovered exactly 102 years later, by E. Lee SpenceThe Treaty of Huế is signed between Vietnam and the French EmpireThe Polish peasant army, now led by Zygmunt Sierakowski, achieves its first victory over the Russian army, near RaguvaThe Battle of CamarónThe Battle of JacksonAfter a 2-month siege, the French army of Bazaine takes Puebla, MexicoThe first formal African American military unit, the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, unsuccessfully assaults Confederate-held Fort Wagner but their valiant fighting still proves the worth of African American soldiers during the war. Their commander, Colonel Robert Shaw, is shot leading the attack, and is buried with his men (450 Union, along with 175 Confederate)Following his defeat in the Battle of Gettysburg, General Robert E. Lee sends a letter of resignation to Confederate President Jefferson Davis (Davis refuses the request upon receipt)After Spain's annexation of the Dominican Republic, rebels raise the Dominican flag in Santiago to begin the Dominican Restoration WarIn Charleston, South Carolina, Union batteries and ships bombard Confederate-held Fort Sumter (the bombardment does not end until December 31)The Lawrence MassacreConfederates evacuate Battery Wagner and Morris Island, in South CarolinaU.S. President Abraham Lincoln proclaims a national Thanksgiving Day, to be celebrated on the final Thursday in NovemberThe Battle of Bristoe StationThe Battle of Campbell's StationSiege of KnoxvilleAmerican Civil War: U. S. President Abraham Lincoln delivers the Gettysburg Address, at the military cemetery dedication ceremony in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.Battle of Chattanooga IIIThe Battle of Lookout MountainThe Battle of Missionary RidgeConfederate cavalry leader John Hunt Morgan and several of his men escape the Ohio state prison, and return safely to the South57,000 Austrian and Prussian troops cross the Eider River into DenmarkThe tiny Confederate hand-propelled submarine H. L. Hunley sinks the USS Housatonic (1861), using a spar torpedo in Charleston Harbor, becoming the first submarine to sink an enemy ship, although the submarine and her crew of eight are also lostThe Battle of OlusteeThe first Northern prisoners arrive at the Confederate prison at Andersonville, Georgia (the 500 prisoners had left Richmond, Virginia seven days before)Abraham Lincoln appoints Ulysses S. Grant commander in chief of all Union armiesThe Battle of Fort PillowThe United States Congress passes the Coinage Act of 1864, which mandates that the inscription In God We Trust be placed on all coins minted as United States currencyThe Battle of HeligolandThe Battle of Yellow Tavern(The Bloody Angle): Thousands of Union and Confederate soldiers dieThe Battle of New MarketThe Battle of Ware Bottom ChurchThe Battle of PiedmontUnion forces under General Grant and troops led by Confederate General Robert E. Lee battle for the last timeThe Battle of Brices Cross RoadsArlington National Cemetery is established in the United States, when 200 acres (0.81 km2) of the grounds of Robert E. Lee's home (Arlington House) are officially set aside as a military cemetery, by U.S. Secretary of War Edwin M. StantonThe Battle of CherbourgThe Battle of Kennesaw MountainPresident Lincoln issues a true proclamation of conscription of 500,000 men, for the U.S. Civil WarAtlanta is evacuated on orders of Union General William Tecumseh ShermanThe First Battle of SaltvilleThe Battle of Tom's BrookThe Second Schleswig War is concluded. Denmark renounces all claim to Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which come under Prussian and Austrian administrationThe 1864 United States Presidential ElectionUnion General Sherman burns Atlanta and starts to move south, living off the land, and causing extensive devastation to crops and millsConfederate General John Bell Hood invades Tennessee, in an unsuccessful attempt to draw Union General Sherman from GeorgiaA group of Confederate operatives, calling themselves the Confederate Army of Manhattan, starts fires in more than 20 locations, in an unsuccessful attempt to burn down New York CityThe Battle of FranklinAt Waynesboro, Georgia, forces under Union General Judson Kilpatrick prevent troops, led by Confederate General Joseph Wheeler, from interfering with Union General Sherman's campaign of destroying a wide swath of the South, on his march to Savannah; Union forces suffer more than 3 times the casualties as the Confederates, howeverThe Battle of Peachtree CreekThe Battle of AtlantaThe Second Battle of KernstownThe Battle of Ezra ChurchConfederate spy Belle Boyd is arrested by Union troops, and detained at the Old Capitol Prison in Washington, D.C.The Battle of the CraterThe First Geneva Convention, for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field, is signed in Geneva by 12 European states, under the auspices of the International Committee for Relief to the Wounded (predecessor of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement)Union forces, led by General William T. Sherman, launch an assault on AtlantaConfederate General Hood evacuates Atlanta, after a 4-month siege mounted by Union General ShermanUnion forces under General Sherman enter Atlanta, a day after the Confederate defenders fled the cityThe Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (conditional prohibition of slavery and involuntary servitude) passes narrowly, in the House of RepresentativesConfederate General Robert E. Lee becomes general-in-chiefThe Hampton Roads ConferenceTennessee adopts a new constitution, that abolishes slaveryThe U.S. Congress authorizes formation of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned LandsThe Confederate States of America agrees to the use of African American troopsThe Congress of the Confederate States of America adjourns for the last timeIn Virginia, Confederate forces capture Fort Stedman from the Union. Lee's army suffers heavy casualties: about 2,900, including 1,000 captured in the Union counterattack. Confederate positions are weakened. After the battle, Lee's defeat is only a matter of timeThe Battle of Five ForksConfederate President Jefferson Davis and most of his Cabinet flee the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, which is taken by Union troops the next dayConfederate States Army General Robert E. Lee surrenders to Union Army General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, effectively ending the American Civil WarAssassination of Abraham LincolnPresident Lincoln dies early this morning from his gunshot wound, aged 56. Vice President Andrew Johnson becomes the 17th President of the United States, upon Lincoln's death. Johnson is sworn in later that morningConfederate President Jefferson Davis and his entire cabinet arrive in Charlotte, North Carolina, with a contingent of 1,000 soldiersConfederate States Army General Joseph E. Johnston surrenders to Union Army Major General William Tecumseh Sherman, at Durham Station, North CarolinaUnion cavalry corner John Wilkes Booth in a Virginia barn, and cavalryman Boston Corbett fatally shoots the assassinThe steamboat Sultana, carrying 2,300 passengers, explodes and sinks in the Mississippi River, killing 1,800, mostly Union survivors of the Andersonville PrisonLieutenant General Richard Taylor, commanding all Confederate forces in Alabama, Mississippi, and eastern Louisiana, surrenders his forces to Union General Edward Canby at Citronelle, Alabama, effectively ending all Confederate resistance east of the Mississippi RiverJefferson Davis meets with his Confederate Cabinet (14 officials) for the last time, in Washington, Georgia, and the Confederate Government is officially dissolvedJefferson Davis is captured by the Union Army near Irwinville, GeorgiaPresident of the United States Andrew Johnson issues a proclamation of general amnesty for most citizens of the former ConfederacyConfederate forces west of the Mississippi River under General Edmund Kirby Smith surrender at Galveston, Texas, under terms negotiated on May 26, becoming the last to do soThe Battle of the RiachueloUnion Major General Gordon Granger lands at Galveston, Texas, and informs the people of Texas of the Emancipation Proclamation (an event celebrated in modern times each year as Juneteenth)At Fort Towson in Oklahoma Territory, Confederate General Stand Watie, a Cherokee Indian, surrenders the last significant Rebel armyFollowing Abraham Lincoln's assassination on April 14, the four conspirators condemned to death during the trial are hanged, including David Herold, George Atzerodt, Lewis Powell and Mary Surratt. Her son, John Surratt, escapes execution by fleeing to Canada, and ultimately to EgyptThe Wild Bill Hickok – Davis Tutt ShootoutChamp Ferguson becomes the first person (and one of only two) to be convicted of war crimes for actions taken during the American Civil War, found guilty by a U.S. Army tribunal on 23 charges, arising from the murder of 53 people. He is hanged on October 20, two days after the conviction of Henry Wirz for war crimesFlorida drafts its constitution in TallahasseeConfederate captain James Waddell surrenders the commerce raider CSS Shenandoah to the British at LiverpoolCaptain Henry Wirz, Confederate superintendent of Andersonville Prison (Camp Sumter) is hanged, becoming the second of two combatants, and only serving regular soldier, to be executed for war crimes committed during the American Civil WarDuar War between Britain and Bhutan ends with the Treaty of Sinchula, in which Bhutan cedes control of its southern passes to Britain in return for an annual subsidyThe Action of 17 November 1865The Naval Battle of PapudoThe United States Congress creates the United States House Committee on Appropriations and the Committee on Banking and Commerce, reducing the tasks of the House Committee on Ways and MeansSecretary Seward declares the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution ratified by three-quarters of the states (including those in secession) as of December 6; slavery is legally outlawed in the last two slave states of Kentucky and Delaware, and the remaining 45,000 slaves are freedJonathan Shank and Barry Ownby form the Ku Klux Klan in the American South, to resist Reconstruction and intimidate carpetbaggers and scalawags, as well as to repress the freedpeopleFisk University, a historically black university, is established in Nashville, TennesseeOttoman troops clash with supporters of Maronite leader Youssef Bey Karam,[1] at St. Doumit in Lebanon; the Ottomans are defeatedThe Battle of AbtaoThe United States Congress overwhelmingly passes the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the first federal legislation to protect the rights of African-Americans; U.S. President Andrew Johnson vetoes the bill on March 27, and Congress overrides the veto on April 9Alexander II of Russia narrowly escapes an assassination attempt in the city of St PetersburgThe Battle of CallaoThe Battle of TuyutíThe Austro-Prussian War begins, when the Austrians and most of the medium German states declare war on PrussiaAfrican-American men are granted the right to vote in the District of ColumbiaShōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu abdicates, and the late Emperor Kōmei's son, Prince Mutsuhito becomes Emperor Meiji of Japan in a brief ceremony in Kyoto, ending the Late Tokugawa shogunateAugusta Institute is founded in Augusta, Georgia, later known as Morehouse CollegeThe Battle of Inlon riverThe British North America Act receives royal assent, forming the Dominion of Canada, in an event known as the Confederation. This unites the Province of Canada (Quebec and Ontario), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia on July 1. Ottawa becomes the capital, and John A. Macdonald becomes the Dominion's first prime ministerThe Alaska PurchaseThe Austro-Hungarian Compromise (called Ausgleich in German or kiegyezés in Hungarian (The Compromise)) is born through Act 12, which establishes the Austro-Hungarian Empire; on June 8 Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria is crowned King of HungaryQueen Victoria signs the British North America Act, creating the Dominion of Canada, effective July 1The British North America Act of 29 March comes into force, creating the Dominion of Canada, the first independent dominion in the British EmpireThe Constitution of the North German Confederation comes into effect, creating a confederation of states, under the leadership of Prussia and Otto von BismarckFrance declares Cambodia's independence from Siam; Cambodia becomes a protectorate of France and EnglandEmperor Meiji of Japan marries Empress Shōken (née Masako Ichijō). The Empress consort is thereafter known as Lady HarukoThe United States takes control of Midway IslandAlaska is transferred from Russia to the US, becoming the Department of AlaskaGiuseppe Garibaldi's troops march into RomeThe Battle of KöniggrätzThe Battle of LissaTennessee becomes the first U.S. state to be readmitted to the Union following the American Civil WarThe United States Congress passes legislation authorizing the rank of General of the Army (now called "5-star general"); Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant becomes the first to have this rankThe Treaty of Prague ends the Austro-Prussian War. The Duchy of Limburg leaves the German ConfederationThe Battle of CurupaytyThe Treaty of Vienna ends the war between Austria and Italy; it formalizes the annexation of Venetia by ItalyBasutoland is proclaimed a British Protectorate, becoming independent in 1966 as LesothoThe Charter Oath, drawn up by his councilors, is promulgated at the enthronement of the Emperor Meiji of Japan, promising deliberative assemblies and an end to feudalismFall of EdoMemorial Day is observed in the United States for the first time (it was proclaimed on May 5 by General John A. Logan)The Battle of UenoThe Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratifiedThe Allies, in an amphibious operation, capture the fortress of HumaitáThe United States Expatriation Act ("An Act concerning the Rights of American Citizens in foreign States") is adoptedThe Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is adopted, including the Citizenship Clause and the Equal Protection Clause, legally, if not actually, guaranteeing African Americans full citizenship and equal protection, and all persons in the United States due process of lawEmperor Meiji of Japan announces that the name of the city of Edo is to be changed to TokyoThe current Japanese era name is changed to the Meiji period. The 265-year-long Edo period endsU.S. Presidential Election, 1868Battle of YtororóUlysses S. Grant is sworn in, as the 18th President of the United StatesThe First Transcontinental Railroad in North America is completed at Promontory, Utah, by the driving of the "golden spike"In New York, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton form the National Woman Suffrage AssociationOne day after surrendering at the land Battle of Hakodate (begun 4 December 1868), Enomoto Takeaki turns over Goryōkaku to Japanese forces, signaling the collapse of the Republic of EzoThe fortress of Goryōkaku is turned over to Imperial Japanese forces, bringing an end to the Republic of Ezo, the Battle of Hakodate and the Boshin WarThe 15-year-old Mutsuhito, Emperor Meiji of Japan, declares the Meiji Restoration, his own restoration to full power, under the influence of supporters from the Chōshū and Satsuma Domains, and against the supporters of the Tokugawa shogunate, triggering the Boshin WarBrazilian Army commander Luís Alves de Lima e Silva, Duke of Caxias enters Asunción, Paraguay's capital. Some days later he declares the war is over. Nevertheless, Francisco Solano López, Paraguay's president, prepares guerrillas to fight in the countrysideThe Battle of AwaIn the Passage of Humaitá, a Brazilian naval force succeeds in dashing past a Paraguayan fortress on the River Paraguay, considered by some the turning point in the Paraguayan WarThe Hudson's Bay Company surrenders its claim to Rupert's Land in Canada, under its letters patent, back to the British CrownThe Wyoming territorial legislature gives women the right to vote, the first such law in the worldTriple Alliance forces take AsunciónVirginia rejoins the Union. This year it adopts a new Constitution, drawn up by John Curtiss Underwood, expanding suffrage to all male citizens over 21, including freedmenThe 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, guaranteeing African American men the right to vote, is passedWomen gain the right to vote in Utah TerritoryMilitary control of Mississippi ends, and it is readmitted to the UnionHiram Rhodes Revels, a Republican from Mississippi, is sworn into the United States Senate, becoming the first [African American ever to sit in the U.S. CongressThe Battle of Cerro CoráThe 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, giving African American men the right to vote, is ratifiedTexas is readmitted to the UnionThomas Mundy Peterson is the first African American to vote in an electionGeorgia becomes the last former Confederate state to be readmitted to the UnionThe British government admits the former Hudson's Bay Company territory of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to the Dominion of CanadaFrance declares war on PrussiaEmperor Napoleon III of France is deposed, and the Third Republic is declared. Empress Eugénie flees to England with her childrenThe Capture of RomeRome becomes the capital of unified ItalyIn the United States, the newly created Weather Bureau (later renamed the National Weather Service) makes its first official meteorological forecast: "High winds at Chicago and Milwaukee... and along the Lakes"Battle of BapaumeProclamation of the German EmpireGiuseppe Garibaldi's group of French and Italian volunteer troops, in support of the French Third Republic, win a battle against the Prussians in DijonThe District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871 is signed into law by U.S. President Ulysses S. GrantThe first American civil service reform legislation is signed into law by U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant, creating the United States Civil Service CommissionOtto von Bismarck becomes the first Chancellor of the German EmpireU.S. President Ulysses S. Grant signs the Civil Rights Act of 1871The Treaty of Frankfurt is signed, confirming the frontiers between Germany and France. The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine are transferred from France to GermanyThe Bombardment of the Selee River FortsThe Chinese Massacre of 1871German chancellor Otto von Bismarck tries to ban Catholics from the political stage, by introducing harsh laws concerning the separation of church and stateThe Cavite mutinyIn the United States, Yellowstone National Park (once dubbed "Colter's Hell" after John Colter, of the Lewis and Clark Expedition) is established as the world's first national parkThe Third Carlist War begins in northern Spain. Don Carlos, Duke of Madrid (the Carlist pretender Carlos VII) appoints General Rada commander-in-chief in Spain, and calls for a general risingVictoria Woodhull becomes the first woman nominated for President of the United States, although she is a year too young to qualify and does not appear on the ballotU.S. President Ulysses S. Grant signs the Amnesty Act of 1872 into law, restoring full civil rights to all but about 500 Confederate sympathizersU.S. Presidential Election, 1872In defiance of the law, American suffragist Susan B. Anthony votes for the first time (on November 18 she is served an arrest warrant, and in the subsequent trial is fined $100, which she never pays)The Great Boston Fire of 1872The Coinage Act of 1873 in the United States is signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant; coming into effect on April 1, it ends bimetallism in the U.S., and places the country on the gold standardJapan adopts the Gregorian calendarThe city of Khiva falls to Imperial Russian forces, under the command of General Konstantin von KaufmanA peace treaty is signed between Imperial Russia and the Khanate of Khiva, making the khanate a Russian protectorateGerman troops leave France, upon completion of payment of indemnity for the Franco-Prussian WarPrince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, second son of Queen Victoria, marries Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, only daughter of Tsar Alexander III of RussiaFrance and Viet Nam sign the Second Treaty of Saigon, further recognizing the full sovereignty of France over CochinchinaThe Chicago Fire of 1874Patrick Francis Healy, S.J., the first Black man to receive a PhD, is inaugurated as president of Georgetown University, the oldest Catholic University in America, and becomes the first Black person to head a predominantly White universityThe Battle of Liberty PlaceDemocrats gain control of the United States House of Representatives for the first time since 1860Guangxu becomes the 11th Qing Dynasty Emperor of China at the age of 4, in succession to his cousinThe United States Congress passes the Civil Rights Act, which prohibits racial discrimination in public accommodations and jury dutyThe Treaty of Saint Petersburg is signed between Japan and RussiaBattle of MontejurraGovernment troops under General Primo de Rivera drive through the weak Carlist forces protecting Estella, and take the city by stormThe Japanese force the Korean government to sign the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 (having brought a fleet to Incheon, the port of modern-day Seoul), opening three ports to Japanese trade and forcing Korea's Joseon dynasty to cease considering itself a tributary of China. On China's urging, Korea also signs treaties with the European powers, in an effort to counterbalance JapanThe Carlist forces do not succeed, and the promises are never fulfilled. The Carlist pretender Carlos, Duke of Madrid, goes into exile in France, bringing the conflict to an end after four yearsThe Brooklyn Theatre FireQueen Victoria is proclaimed Empress of India by the Royal Titles Act 1876, introduced by Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of the United KingdomThe Conference of Constantinople ends, with Ottoman Turkey rejecting proposals of internal reform and Balkan provisionsIn the Compromise of 1877, the 1876 United States presidential election is resolved with the selection of Rutherford B. Hayes as the winner, even though Samuel J. Tilden won the popular vote on November 7, 1876Russia declares war on the Ottoman EmpireBy a speech in the Parliament of Romania by Mihail Kogălniceanu, the country declares itself independent from the Ottoman Empire (recognized in 1878 after the end of the Romanian independence war)Henry Ossian Flipper becomes the first African American cadet to graduate from the United States Military AcademyThe Turkish army and its allies destroy the Bulgarian city of Stara Zagora and massacre the inhabitantsThe Battle of ShiroyamaThe fourth battle of the Russo-Turkish War is fought, concluding the Siege of PlevnaThe Treaty of Berlin makes Serbia, Montenegro and Romania completely independent, confirms the autonomy of Bulgaria, makes Cyprus a British possession, and allows Austria-Hungary to garrison the Bosnia VilayeThe Cyprus ConventionThe Second Anglo-Afghan War commences, when the British attack Ali Masjid in the Khyber PassThe Battle of IsandlwanaThe Ryukyu Domain is incorporated into the Okinawa Prefecture of Japan, and the last ruler, Shō Tai, is exiled to TokyoThe Battle of HlobaneThe Battle of KambulaChile formally declares war on Bolivia and PeruNapoléon, Prince Imperial (Napoléon IV), great-nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, Bonapartist pretender to the French throne, is killed in Africa while attached to the British ArmyThe Battle of UlundiQing dynasty China signs the Treaty of Livadia with the Russian Empire on terms so unfavorable to China that its emissary is threatened with executionThe Dual Alliance is formed by Germany and Austria-HungaryThe Battle of AngamosThomas Edison demonstrates incandescent lighting to the public for the first time, in Menlo Park, New JerseyThe SS Columbia, which will be the first outside usage of Thomas Edison's incandescent light bulb, is launched at the Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works of John Roach & Sons in Chester, PennsylvaniaFrance annexes TahitiAustralian police capture bank robber Ned Kelly, after a gun battle at Glenrowan, VictoriaThe Battle of MaiwandThe Battle of KandaharAustralian bushranger and bank robber Ned Kelly is hanged in MelbourneThe Battle of BronkhorstspruitThe Battle of San JuanThe Battle of MirafloresQing dynasty China signs the Treaty of Saint Petersburg with the Russian Empire providing for the return to China of the eastern part of the Ili BasinAlexander II of Russia is killed near his palace, when a bomb is thrown at him, an act falsely blamed upon Russian Jews. He is succeeded by his son, Alexander IIIThe First Boer War comes to an endThe Principality of Romania is proclaimed the Kingdom of RomaniaIn North Africa, Tunisia becomes a French protectorate by the Treaty of BardoThe Pacific island of Rotuma cedes to Great Britain, becoming a dependency of the Colony of FijiThe American Red Cross is established by Clara BartonThe Battle of SangrarAssassination of James A. GarfieldThe Pretoria ConventionCharles J. Guiteau is found guilty of the assassination of James A. Garfield (President of the United States) and sentenced to death, despite an insanity defense raised by his lawyerThe Principality of Serbia becomes the Kingdom of Serbia following a proclamationBritish gunboats enter Monrovia, with Arthur Havelock demanding that Liberia cede disputed territory to the British colony of Sierra Leone, of which he is GovernorThe Chinese Exclusion Act is the first important law which restricts immigration into the United StatesThe Triple Alliance is formed between Germany, Austria-Hungary and ItalyThe U.S. Congress passes the 1882 Immigration ActBritish troops occupy Cairo, and Egypt becomes a British protectorateThe Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, establishing the United States civil service, is passedThe Supreme Court of the United States declares part of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional, allowing individuals and corporations to discriminate based on racePeru and Chile sign the Treaty of Ancón, by which the Tarapacá province is ceded to Chile, ending Peru's involvement in the War of the PacificThe Royal Canadian Dragoons and The Royal Canadian Regiment, the first Permanent Force cavalry and infantry regiments of the Canadian Army, are formedGermany takes possession of TogolandNagasaki Shipyard, as predecessor of an aircraft and shipbuilding manufacturing brand in Japan, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries was founded in Kyushu IslandGerman administration is established in CameroonThe Berlin Conference, which regulates European colonisation and trade in Africa, beginsThe Washington Monument is completed in Washington, D.C., becoming the tallest structure in the world at this dateKing Leopold II of Belgium establishes the Congo Free State, as a personal possessionUnited States President Chester A. Arthur dedicates the Washington MonumentThe Battle of Đồng ĐăngA French victory at Kép causes China to withdraw its forces from Tonkin, in the final engagement of the conflictThe Statue of Liberty arrives in New York HarborSarah E. Goode is the first African-American woman to apply for and receive a patent, for the invention of the hideaway bedThe Rock Springs MassacreUpper Burma is formally annexed to British Burma, following its conquest in the Third Anglo-Burmese War of November 1885The Treaty of Bucharest ends the Serbo-Bulgarian War in the BalkansThe “Carrollton Massacre”The Haymarket affairSpain abolishes slavery in CubaThe Battle of DogaliThe Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, passed by the 49th United States Congress, is signed into law by President Grover ClevelandArgonia, Kansas elects Susanna M. Salter, as the first female mayor in the United StatesThe British Empire celebrates Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee, marking the 50th year of her reignZululand becomes a British colonyThe British Empire takes over BalochistanWilhelm I dies, Frederick III becomes German Emperor and King of PrussiaThe foundation stone for a new National Library of Greece is laid in AthensOpening of an international Congress for Women's Rights organized by Susan B. Anthony in Washington, D.C., leading to formation of the International Council of Women, a key event in the international women's movementThe German Empire annexes the island of NauruThe North Borneo Chartered Company's territories (including Sabah) become the British protectorate of North BorneoWilhelm II becomes German Emperor and King of Prussia; 1888 is the Year of the Three EmperorsThe Washington Monument officially opens to the general public, in Washington, D.CThe celebration of Thanksgiving (United States) and the first day of Hanukkah coincideThe Meiji Constitution of Japan is adopted; the 1st Diet of Japan convenes in 1890The Eiffel Tower is inaugurated in Paris (opens May 6). At 300 m (980 ft), its height exceeds the previous tallest structure in the world by 130 m (430 ft). Contemporary critics regard it as aesthetically displeasingMenelik II, Emperor of Ethiopia, signs a treaty of amity with Italy, giving Italy control over what will become EritreaThe Exposition Universelle opens in Paris, with the Eiffel Tower as its entrance arch. The Galerie des machines, at 111 m (364 ft), spans the longest interior space in the world at this timeAt the Vienna Hofburg, the grand opening ceremony is held for the Imperial Natural History Museum (German: K.k. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum), begun in 1871; from August 13 to the end of December, the museum counts 175,000 visitorsThe Kingdom of Italy establishes Eritrea as its colony, in the Horn of AfricaThe 1890 British UltimatumThe Weather Bureau is established, within the United States Department of AgricultureKaiser Wilhelm II dismisses Otto von BismarckKashihara Shrine, a landmark spot in Nara Prefecture, Japan, is officially built by Emperor Mutsuhito (Emperor of Meiji)Canadian-born boxer George Dixon defeats the British bantamweight champion in London, giving him claim to be the first black world champion in any sportThe Heligoland–Zanzibar TreatyTreaty of LondonIn Washington, D.C., the Daughters of the American Revolution is foundedThe Meiji Constitution goes into effect in Japan, and its first Diet convenesPaying of old age pensions begins in GermanyThe International Copyright Act of 1891 is passed, by the 51st United States CongressThe March 14, 1891, New Orleans lynchingsŌtsu incidentEllis Island begins accommodating immigrants to the United StatesHomer Plessy, an octoroon, is arrested for deliberately sitting in a whites-only railroad car in Louisiana, leading to the landmark Plessy v. Ferguson court case, an unsuccessful attempt to challenge "separate but equal" race legislation in the United StatesThe Pledge of Allegiance is first recited in the United StatesTo mark the 400th anniversary Columbus Day holiday, the "Pledge of Allegiance" is first recited in unison by students in U.S. public schoolsThe Washington National Cathedral is chartered by Congress; the charter is signed by President Benjamin HarrisonThe Overthrow of the Hawaiian KingdomAmerican University is established by an Act of Congress, in Washington, D.C.The Paknam IncidentThe Ibadan area becomes a British protectorate, after a treaty signed by Fijabi, the Baale of Ibadan with the British acting Governor of Lagos, George C. DentonThe Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1893 is signed, as the Kingdom of Siam cedes all of its territories east of the Mekong River to France, creating the territory of LaosThe Shangani Patrol of British South Africa Company soldiers is ambushed and annihilated, by more than 3,000 Matabele warriorsThe Franco-Russian AllianceBritain establishes a protectorate over UgandaThe May Day riots of 1894War is declared between the Qing Empire of China and the Empire of Japan, over their rival claims of influence on their common ally, the Joseon dynasty of KoreaEmperor Alexander III of Russia is succeeded by his son, Nicholas IIThe Battle of LüshunkouWedding of Nicholas II of Russia and Alix of Hesse in the Grand Church of the Winter Palace at Saint PetersburgWomen in South Australia become the first in Australia to gain the right to vote and to be elected to Parliament, taking effect from 1895, after decades of activismThe Battle of CoatitThe first rebellions take place, marking the start of the Cuban War of IndependenceJapanese troops capture Liaoyang, and land in TaiwanThe Treaty of Shimonoseki is signed between China and Japan. This marks the end of the First Sino-Japanese War, and the defeated Qing Empire is forced to renounce its claims on Korea, and to concede the southern portion of Fengtien province, Taiwan, and the Pescadores Islands to Japan.[4] The huge indemnity exacted from China is used to establish the Yawata Iron and Steel Works in JapanThe 1895 Yaroslavl Great Manufacture strikeBritain annexes Tongaland, between Zululand and MozambiqueBooker T. Washington delivers the Atlanta Compromise speechFrench troops capture Antananarivo, MadagascarThe city of Tainan, last stronghold of the Republic of Formosa, capitulates to the forces of the Empire of Japan, ending the short-lived republic, and beginning the era of Taiwan under Japanese ruleA corps of 2,350 Italian troops, mostly Askari, are crushed by 30,000 Abyssinian troops at Amba AlagiBritish redcoats enter the Ashanti capital, Kumasi, and Asantehene Agyeman Prempeh I is deposedEthiopia defends its independence from Italy, ending the First Italo-Ethiopian WarPlessy v. FergusonThe Battle of FerkehIn Washington, D.C., in response to a "call to confer" issued by Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin to all women of color, the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs is organizedThe Anglo-Zanzibar WarBritain establishes a Protectorate over the Ashanti concluding the Fourth Anglo-Ashanti WarItaly and France sign a treaty, whereby Italy virtually recognizes Tunisia as a French dependencyA British force is ambushed by Chief Ologbosere, son-in-law of the ruler. This leads to a punitive expedition against BeninThe French conquer the island of Raiatea and capture the rebel chief Teraupoo, ending the Leeward Islands War and bringing all of the Society Islands under their controlThe Scientific-Humanitarian Committee (Wissenschaftlich-humanitäres Komitee, WhK) is founded in Berlin as an LGBT campaigning organization, the first such in historyThe Battle of SaragarhiGreece and Turkey sign a peace treaty to end the Greco-Turkish WarThe Pact of Biak-na-BatoNatal annexes ZululandThe USS Maine explodes and sinks in Havana Harbor, Cuba, for reasons never fully established, killing 266 men. The event precipitates the United States' declaration of war on Spain, two months laterVladimir Lenin creates the Russian Social Democratic Labour PartyThe United States Navy begins a blockade of Cuban ports and the USS Nashville captures a Spanish merchant shipThe United States declares war on Spain; the U.S. Congress announces that a state of war has existed since April 21 (later backdating this one more day to April 20)The Battle of Manila BayThousands of Chinese scholars and Beijing citizens seeking reforms protest in front of the capital control yuanThe Bombardment of San JuanThe territory of Kwang-Chou-Wan is leased by China to France, according to the Treaty of 12 April 1892, as the Territoire de Kouang-Tchéou-Wan, forming part of French IndochinaThe Battle of San Juan HillThe Battle of Santiago de CubaThe United States annexes the Hawaiian IslandsThe United States invasion of Puerto Rico begins, with a landing at Guánica BayThe Battle of ManilaThe Wilmington Insurrection of 1898The Treaty of Paris is signed, ending the Spanish–American WarSpanish rule ends in Cuba, concluding 400 years of the Spanish Empire in the AmericasThe United States takes possession of Wake Island in the Pacific OceanThe Philippine–American War begins as hostilities break out in ManilaNew
eventVoting machines are approved by the U.S. Congress, for use in federal electionsThe Battle of Marilao RiverThe Capture of MalolosThe Treaty of Paris (1898) between the US and Spain goes into effect; Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam are ceded to the USThe Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation takes effect, ending extraterritoriality and the unequal status of Japan in foreign commerceThe Battle of Talana HillThe Battle of Tirad PassThe Battle of MagersfonteinU.S. Secretary of State John Hay announces the Open Door Policy, to promote American trade with ChinaBoers attempt to end the Siege of Ladysmith, which leads to the Battle of PlatrandThe U.S. Senate accepts the British-German Treaty of 1899, in which the United Kingdom renounces its claims to the American Samoa portion of the Samoan IslandsThe Battle of Spion KopForeign diplomats in Peking, Qing Dynasty China, demand that the Boxer rebels be disciplinedBritish troops are defeated by the Boers at LadysmithBritish troops defeat the BoersBritish military leaders accept the unconditional notice of surrender from Boer General Piet CronjéThe British Army relieves the Siege of MafekingBoxers destroy three villages near Peking, and kill 60 Chinese ChristiansThe United Kingdom proclaims a protectorate over TongaRussia invades ManchuriaThe British annex the Orange Free State, as the Orange River ColonySergeant William Harvey Carney is awarded the Medal of Honor for heroism in 1863, as the first African American to have been awarded this medalThe Boxers attack Belgians, in the Fengtai railway stationPeacekeepers from various European countries arrive in China, where they join with Japanese forcesBritish soldiers take PretoriaBoxers gather about 20,000 people near Peking, and kill hundreds of European citizens, including the German ambassadorAn international contingent of troops, under British command, invades Peking and frees the European hostagesThe Reichstag approves the second of the German Naval Laws allowing expansion of the Imperial German NavyThe Battle of Pulang LupaThe Battle of MabitacThe Cook Islands become a territory of the United KingdomThe United Kingdom annexes the TransvaalThe British colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia federate as the Commonwealth of Australia; Edmund Barton becomes the first Prime Minister of AustraliaThe Hay–Pauncefote Treaty is signed by the United Kingdom and United States, ceding control of the Panama Canal to the United StatesThe United Kingdom and Germany agree on the frontier between German East Africa, and the British colony of NyasalandThe United Kingdom, Germany and Japan protest the Sino-Russian agreement on ManchuriaThe United States Congress passes the Platt Amendment, limiting the autonomy of Cuba as a condition for the withdrawal of American troopsIn Bremen, an assassination attempt is made on Wilhelm II, German EmperorKatsura Tarō becomes Prime Minister of JapanCuba becomes a United States protectorateRobert Falcon Scott sets sail on the RRS Discovery, to explore the Ross Sea in AntarcticaU.S. Vice President Theodore Roosevelt utters the famous phrase, "Speak softly and carry a big stick", at the Minnesota State FairAssassination of William McKinleyThe Boxer Rebellion in China officially ends, with the signing of the Boxer ProtocolVice President Theodore Roosevelt becomes the 26th President of the United States, upon President William McKinley's death. Roosevelt is sworn in that afternoonThe Battle of BalangigaU.S. President Theodore Roosevelt invites African American leader Booker T. Washington to the White House. The American South reacts angrily to the visit, and racial violence increases in the regionThe new Constitution of Alabama requires voters in the state to have passed literacy testsU.S. President Theodore Roosevelt invites African American leader Booker T. Washington to the White House. The American South reacts angrily to the visit, and racial violence increases in the regionU.S. President Theodore Roosevelt delivers a 20,000-word speech to the House of Representatives, asking Congress to curb the power of trusts "within reasonable limits"U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt prosecutes the Northern Securities Company for violation of the Sherman ActBattle of TweeboschClashes between police and Georgian workers led by Joseph Stalin leave 15 dead, 54 wounded, and 500 in prisonCuba gains independence from the United StatesThe Treaty of Vereeniging ends the Second Boer WarThe Commonwealth Franchise Act in Australia grants women's suffrage in federal elections for resident British subjects (with certain ethnic minorities excepted), making Australia the first independent country to grant women the vote at a national level, and the first country to allow them to stand for ParliamentPhilippine–American War endsCoronation of Edward VII as King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, Emperor of India at Westminster Abbey in LondonShiloh Baptist Church DisasterBritish explorers Scott, Shackleton and Wilson reach the furthest southern point reached thus far by man, south of 82°SAfter agreeing to arbitration in Washington, Britain, Germany and Italy reach a settlement with Venezuela, resulting in the Washington Protocols. The naval blockade that began in 1902 will endCuba leases Guantánamo Bay to the United States "in perpetuity"In New York City, the Martha Washington Hotel, the first hotel exclusively for women, opensThe Ottoman Empire and the German Empire sign an agreement to build the Constantinople–Baghdad RailwayThe Hay–Herrán Treaty, granting the United States the right to build the Panama Canal, is ratified by the United States Senate. The Colombian Senate later rejects the treatyThe British take over the Fulani EmpireThe Women's Social and Political Union is founded in the U.K.First African American Woman to charter a bankThe Russian Social Democratic Labour Party splits into two groups: the Bolsheviks (Russian for "majority") and Mensheviks (Russian for "minority")The Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty is signed by the United States and Panama, giving the U.S. exclusive rights over the Panama Canal ZoneThe Wright Brothers made the first controlled, sustained flight of a powered, heavier-than-air aircraft with the Wright FlyerFor $10 million, the United States gains control of the Panama Canal ZoneRussian troops in Korea retreat toward Manchuria, followed by 100,000 Japanese troopsThe Entente Cordiale is signed between the UK and FranceUnited States Army engineers begin work on the Panama CanalHundreds of Tibetans attack the British camp at Changlo, and hold the advantage for a while, before being defeated by superior weapons, and losing at least 200 menRussian minelayer Amur lays a minefield about 15 miles (24 km) off Port Arthur, and sinks Japan's battleships Hatsuse, 15,000 tons, with 496 crew and YashimaA Japanese infantry charge fails to take Port ArthurThe Dalai Lama signs the Anglo-Tibetan Treaty with Colonel Francis YounghusbandTheodore Roosevelt announces his "Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine, stating that the United States will intervene in the Western Hemisphere, should Latin American governments prove incapable or unstableIn New York City, the first New Year's Eve celebration is held in Times SquareThe Russian Army surrenders at Port Arthur, in Qing Dynasty ChinaBloody SundayThe Imperial Russian Army opens fire on demonstrators in Riga, Governorate of Livonia, killing 73 and injuring 200 peopleTsar Nicholas II of Russia agrees to create an elected assembly (the Duma)Second Inauguration of Theodore RooseveltRussian troops begin to retreat from Mukden, after losing 100,000 troops in 3 daysThe Japanese capture of Mukden (modern-day Shenyang) completes the rout of Russian armies in ManchuriaWilhelm II, German Emperor asserts German equality with France in Morocco, triggering the Tangier or First Moroccan CrisisMutiny breaks out on the Russian ironclad PotemkinThe Taft–Katsura AgreementSun Yat-sen, Chinese revolutionary, forms the first chapter of T'ung Meng Hui, a union of all secret societies determined to bringing down the Manchu dynastyThe Treaty of PortsmouthThe Imperial Russian Army opens fire on a meeting at a street market in Tallinn, Governorate of Estonia, killing 94 and injuring over 200 peopleThe October ManifestoThe Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 ("Eulsa Treaty") effectively makes Korea a protectorate of JapanThe 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State is passed, enacting laïcitéIn support of the Moscow Uprising, the Council of Workers' Deputies of Kiev stages a mass uprising, establishing the Shuliavka Republic in the city, December 12–16In the Russian Empire, the Fundamental Laws are announced at the first state DumaThe Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 is signed into law by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt (effective January 1, 1907)The first Imperial German Navy submarine, U-1, is launchedThe Grand Duchy of Finland becomes the first nation to include the right of women to stand as candidates, when it adopts universal suffrageA United States diplomatic crisis with Japan arises, when the San Francisco public school board orders Japanese students to be taught in racially segregated schools (it is resolved by next year)Charles Curtis from Kansas becomes the first Native American United States SenatorThe 5th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party convenes in secret in LondonThe 1907 Tiflis Bank RobberyThe Orange River Colony gains autonomy, as the Orange Free StateThe Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 brings the government and military of the protectorate of Korea more firmly under Japanese controlCount Alexander Izvolsky and Sir Arthur Nicolson sign the Anglo-Russian Entente in Saint Petersburg, bringing a pause in The Great Game in Central Asia, and establishing the Triple EntenteNew Zealand and Newfoundland become dominionsThe Church of God in Christ, which becomes the fifth-largest African-American Pentecostal-Holiness Christian denomination in the United States, is founded by Bishop Charles Harrison Mason in Memphis, TennesseeThe Santa María School MassacreJapanese emigration to the United States is forbidden, under terms of the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907Major Ahmed Niyazi, with 200 followers (Ottoman troops and civilians), begins an open revolution by defecting from the 3rd Army Corps in Macedonia, decamping into the hill countryThe Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) issues a formal ultimatum to Sultan Abdul Hamid II, to restore the constitution of 1876 within the Ottoman Empire (it is restored the following day)Bulgaria declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire; Ferdinand I of Bulgaria becomes TsarKing Leopold II of Belgium formally relinquishes his personal control of the Congo Free State (becoming Belgian Congo) to Belgium, following evidence collected by Roger Casement of maladministrationYoung Emperor Puyi ascends the Chinese throne at age 2The last United States troops leave Cuba, after being there since the Spanish–American War of 1898The Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 is signed in BangkokThe Ottoman Countercoup of 1909The United States Army Signal Corp Division purchases the world's first military airplane, a Wright Military Flyer, from the Wright brothersJapan and China sign the Gando Convention, which gives Japan a way to receive railroad concessions in Manchuria.In Nicaragua, 500 revolutionaries (including 2 Americans) are executed by order of dictator José Santos Zelaya. The United States responds by sending 2 warshipsGeorge V becomes King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland upon the death of his father, Edward VIIThe second National Association for the Advancement of Colored People meeting is held in New York CityAfrican-American boxer Jack Johnson defeats white American boxer James J. Jeffries in a heavyweight boxing match, sparking race riots across the United StatesOttoman forces capture the city of Shkodër to put down the Albanian Revolt of 1910The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910, by which the Empire of Japan formally annexes the Korean Empire, is signed (it becomes effectively void in 1945, which is formally recognised in 1965)The Mexican Revolution begins, when Francisco I. Madero proclaims the elections of 1910 null and void, and calls for an armed revolution at 6 p.m. against the illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Porfirio DíazThe United States and Canada announce the successful negotiation of their first reciprocal trade agreementInternational Women's Day is celebrated for the first time across EuropeThe Triangle Shirtwaist Factory FireRebels take Agua Prieta on the Sonora–Arizona border; government troops take the town back April 17, when the rebel leader "Red" López gets drunkFrancisco I. Madero's troops besiege Ciudad Juárez, but General Juan J. Navarro refuses his surrender demandThe Second Guangzhou UprisingPancho Villa launches an attack against government troops in Ciudad Juárez without Madero's permission; the government troops surrender on May 10In Ciudad Juárez, a peace treaty is signed between Madero's rebels and government troopsGovernment troops fire at anti-Diaz demonstrators in Mexico City, killing about 200 (officials claim only 40)Italy declares war on the Ottoman EmpireThe world's first combat aerial bombing mission takes place in Libya, during the Italo-Turkish War. Second Lieutenant Giulio Gavotti of Italy drops several small bombsItaly annexes Tripoli and Cyrenaica (confirmed by an act of the Italian Parliament on February 25, 1912)Sun Yat-sen is elected Provisional President of the Republic of ChinaThe Republic of China is establishedVladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik Party break away from the rest of the Russian Social Democratic Labour PartyThe Manchu Qing dynasty of China comes to an end after 268 years, with the abdication of Emperor Puyi in favour of the Republic of ChinaThe Battle of BeirutItalian forces became the first to use airships in war, as two dirigibles drop bombs on Turkish troops encamped at Janzur, from an altitude of 6,000 feetThe French Third Republic establishes the French protectorate in MoroccoWhite Star liner RMS Titanic departs from Southampton, England, with more than 2,200 passengers and crew on her maiden voyage, bound for New YorkThe Lena MassacreCunard Line vessel RMS Carpathia arrives in New York, with the 705 RMS Titanic survivorsEmperor Meiji of Japan dies; he is succeeded by his son Yoshihito, who becomes Emperor Taishō. In the history of Japan, the event marks the end of the Meiji period, and the beginning of the Taishō periodThe Kuomintang, the Chinese nationalist party, is foundedMontenegro declares war against the Ottoman EmpireItaly and the Ottoman Empire sign a treaty in Ouchy near Lausanne, ending the Italo-Turkish WarAlbania declares independence from the Ottoman EmpireBulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia (the Balkan League) sign an armistice with the Ottoman Empire, temporarily halting the First Balkan WarThe First Balkan War ends temporarily: Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia (the Balkan League countries) sign an armistice with Turkey, ending the two-month-long warThe Battle of LemnosBolshevik activist Josef Dzhugashvili first publishes an article,[1] under the pseudonym Stalin, which he adopts hereafter.[2] At this time he, Adolf Hitler and Josip Broz Tito are simultaneously resident in ViennaThe 1913 Ottoman Coup d'étatThubten Gyatso, the 13th Dalai Lama, declares the independence of Tibet from Qing dynasty ChinaPresident Francisco I. Madero and Vice President José María Pino Suárez are forced to resign. Pedro Lascuráin serves as President for less than an hour, before General Victoriano Huerta, leader of the coup, takes officeFrancisco I. Madero and José María Pino Suárez are assassinatedJoseph Stalin is arrested by the Russian secret police, the Okhrana, in Petrograd, and exiled to SiberiaThe Woman Suffrage Procession takes place in Washington, D.C. led by Inez Milholland on horsebackPancho Villa returns to Mexico, from his self-imposed exile in the United StatesSupporters of Phan Xích Long begin a revolt against colonial rule in French IndochinaVenustiano Carranza announces his Plan of Guadalupe, and begins his rebellion against Victoriano Huerta's government, as head of the ConstitutionalsPrincess Victoria Louise of Prussia marries Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover in Berlin, ending the decades-long rift between the Houses of Hohenzollern and Hanover and marking the last great gathering of European sovereignsThe Treaty of London is signed, ending the war. Greece is granted those parts of southern Epirus which it does not already control, and the independence of Albania is recognisedThe Greek–Serbian Treaty of Alliance is signed, paving the way for the Second Balkan WarWomen's suffrage is enacted in NorwayRomania declares war on BulgariaThe Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913The province of Chungking (Chongqing) declares independence; Republican forces crush the rebellion in a couple of weeksThe Treaty of Bucharest is signed, ending the war. Macedonia is divided, and Northern Epirus is assigned to AlbaniaHelgoland Island Air DisasterThe Treaty of Constantinople is signed in Istanbul, between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of BulgariaPancho Villa's troops take Torreón after a 3-day battle, when government troops retreatCrete, having obtained self rule from Turkey after the First Balkan War, is annexed by GreeceItaly returns the Mona Lisa to FranceThe Phi Beta Sigma fraternity is founded by African American students at Howard University, in Washington, D.C.In Washington, D.C., the first stone of the Lincoln Memorial is put into placeTampico AffairCanadian Margaret C. MacDonald is appointed Matron-in-Chief of the Canadian Nursing service band, and becomes the first woman in the British Empire to reach the rank of majorThe Ludlow MassacrePresident Woodrow Wilson asks the United States Congress to use military force in Mexico, in reaction to the Tampico AffairThe Constitutionals take San Luis Potosí; Venustiano Carranza demands Victoriano Huerta's surrenderThe Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of AustriaThe Royal Naval Air Service, a forerunner of the Royal Air Force, is establishedA council is held at Potsdam, powerful leaders within Austria-Hungary and Germany meet to discuss the possibilities of war with Serbia, Russia, and FranceThe Emperor of Austria-Hungary receives the report of the Austro-Hungarian investigation, into the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria at Sarajevo. The Times publishes an account of the Austro-Hungarian press campaign against the Serbians (who are described as "pestilent rats")Victoriano Huerta resigns from the presidency of Mexico, and leaves for Coatzacoalcos, VeracruzJuly UltimatumAustria-Hungary severs diplomatic ties with Serbia, and begins to mobilise its own forces. Radomir Putnik, Chief of the Serbian General Staff, is arrested in Budapest, but subsequently allowed to return to SerbiaWorld War I begins when Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia by telegram. Tsar Nicholas II of Russia orders a partial mobilisation against Austria-HungaryAustro-Hungarian Navy river monitor SMS Bodrog fires the first shots of the war, opening the bombardment of the defences of Belgrade, Serbia's capitalRussia orders full mobilisationThe German Empire declares war on the Russian Empire, following Russia's military mobilization in support of Serbia; Germany also begins mobilisationFrance orders general mobilisationMarcus Garvey founds the Universal Negro Improvement Association in JamaicaGerman troops occupy Luxembourg, in accordance with the Schlieffen PlanA secret treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Germany secures Ottoman neutralityGermany declares war on Russia's ally, FranceGerman troops invade Belgium at 8:02 am (local time). In London the King declares war on Germany, for this violation of Belgian neutrality and especially to defend France. This means a declaration of war by the whole British Empire against Germany. The United States declares neutralityImperial German Navy Rear-Admiral Wilhelm Souchon bombards the French Algerian ports of Bône and Philippeville from battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser BreslauGermany declares war on BelgiumThe Kingdom of Montenegro declares war on Austria-HungaryAustria-Hungary declares war on RussiaBritish colonial troops of the British Gold Coast Regiment, entering the German West African colony of Togoland, encounter the German-led police force at a factory in Nuatja, near Lomé, and the police open fire on the patrol.[13] Alhaji Grunshi returns fire,[14] the first soldier in British service to fire a shot in the warBritish Royal Navy light cruiser HMS Birmingham rams and sinks German submarine U-15 off Fair Isle, the first U-boat lost in actionThe Battle of HalenVenustiano Carranza's troops under general Álvaro Obregón enter Mexico CityGerman forces occupy BrusselsThe Battle of RossignolThe Battle of MonsJapan declares war on GermanyThe Togoland Campaign ends, when the German West African colony of Togoland (Togo from 1960) surrenders to Britain and FranceThe Battle of Río de OroThe Battle of Heligoland BightThe French village of Moronvilliers is occupied by the GermansBritish Royal Navy scout cruiser HMS Pathfinder is sunk by German submarine U-21 in the Firth of Forth (Scotland), the first ship ever to be sunk by a locomotive torpedo fired from a submarineTurkey declares war on BelgiumSouth Africa declares war on GermanyThe Battle of Bita PakaSouth African troops open hostilities in German South-West Africa (modern-day Namibia), with an assault on the Ramansdrift police stationThe Maritz Rebellion of disaffected Boers against the government of the Union of South Africa beginsThe Race to the Sea, by opposing forces on the Western Front, beginsBritish Imperial police forces capture Schuckmannsburg, in the Caprivi Strip of German South-West AfricaThe Action of 22 September 1914The Bombardment of PapeeteThe Race to the Sea effectively ends, with the Western Front reaching the Belgian coastBritish super-dreadnought battleship HMS Audacious (23,400 tons) is sunk off Tory Island, north-west of Ireland, by a minefield laid by the armed German merchant-cruiser BerlinThe Battle of PenangOttoman warships shell Russian Black Sea ports; Russia, France, and Britain declare war on November 1–November 5The Battle of CoronelBritain and France declare war on Turkey.[17] The United Kingdom annexes Cyprus, which it controls until Cyprus' declaration of independence in 1960The Battle of CocosThe Battle of El HerriThe last of U.S. forces withdraw from Veracruz, occupied seven months earlier in response to the Tampico Affair; Venustiano Carranza's troops take over, and Carranza makes the town his headquartersAustro-Hungarian forces occupy Belgrade, SerbiaThe Battle of the Falkland IslandsThe Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and WhitbyEgypt becomes a British protectorateThe Raid on CuxhavenThe Royal Navy battleship HMS Formidable is sunk off Lyme Regis, Dorset, England, by an Imperial German Navy U-boat, with the loss of 547 crewGerman Zeppelins bomb the coastal towns of Great Yarmouth and King's Lynn in England for the first time, killing more than 20The Battle of Dogger BankThe Battle of BolimówThe Maritz Rebellion of disaffected Boers, against the government of the Union of South Africa, ends with the surrender of the remaining rebelsGermany regards the waters around the British Isles to be a war zone from this date, as part of its U-boat campaignBritish armed merchantman HMS Bayano (1913) is sunk in the North Channel off the coast of Scotland by Imperial German Navy U-boat SM U-27. Around 200 crew are lost, a number of bodies being washed up on the Isle of Man, with only 26 savedThe Battle of Más a TierraA British attack on the Dardanelles failsBritish Royal Navy battleship HMS Dreadnought (1906) sinks German submarine U-29 with all hands, in the Pentland Firth off the coast of Scotland, by ramming her, the only time this tactic is known to have been successfully used by a battleshipItaly secretly agrees to leave the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, and join with the Triple Entente, in exchange for certain territories of Austria-Hungary on its bordersCanadian soldier John McCrae writes the poem "In Flanders Fields"Forces of the Ottoman Empire begin shelling ANZAC Cove from a new position behind their linesSinking of the RMS LusitaniaThe Third Attack on Anzac CoveItaly joins the Allies, after declaring war on Austria-HungaryTroops of Álvaro Obregón and Pancho Villa clash at León; Obregón loses his right arm in a grenade attack, but Villa is decisively defeatedIn aerial warfare, German fighter pilot Kurt Wintgens becomes the first person to shoot down another plane, using a machine gun equipped with synchronization gearTheodore Seitz, governor of German South West Africa, surrenders to General Louis Botha, between Otavi and TsumebThe Irish Republican Brotherhood Military Council decides to stage an Easter Rising in 1916The last British troops are evacuated from Gallipoli, as the Ottoman Empire prevails over a joint British and French operation to capture IstanbulThe Battle of WadiParis is bombed by German zeppelinsThe Battle of Salaita HillThe Battle of ColumbusUnited States President Woodrow Wilson sends 12,000 United States troops over the U.S.–Mexico border to pursue Pancho Villa; the 13th Cavalry regiment enters Mexican territoryThe U.S. 7th and 10th Cavalry regiments under John J. Pershing cross the border, to join the hunt for VillaThe temporary Emperor of China, Yuan Shikai, abdicates the throne, and the Republic of China is restored once againFrench ferry SS Sussex is torpedoed by SM UB-29 in the English Channel, with at least 50 killed (including the composer Enrique Granados), resulting on May 4 in the Sussex Pledge by Germany to the United States, suspending its intensified submarine warfare policyBritain and France conclude the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement, which is to divide Arab areas of the Ottoman Empire, following the conclusion of WWI and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, into French and British spheres of influenceHMS Hampshire sinks, having hit a mine off the Orkney Islands, Scotland, with Lord Kitchener aboardThe Entente promises the Kingdom of Serbia, should victory be achieved over Austria-Hungary and its allied Central Powers, the territories of Baranja, Srem and Slavonia from the Cisleithanian part of the Dual Monarchy, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and eastern Dalmatia (from the river of Krka to Bar)A Zeppelin raid destroys No. 61 Farringdon Road, London; it is rebuilt in 1917, and called The Zeppelin BuildingFrench soldiers rescue over 4,000 Armenian Genocide survivors stranded on Musa Dagh, a mountain in the Hatay province of TurkeySerbian Army private Radoje Ljutovac became the first soldier in history to shoot down an enemy aircraft, with ground-to-air fireBritish nurse Edith Cavell is executed by a German firing squad, for helping Allied soldiers escape from BelgiumAustria-Hungary invades the Kingdom of Serbia. Bulgaria enters the war, also invading Serbia. The Serbian First Army retreats towards GreeceFrance declares war on BulgariaRussia and Italy declare war on BulgariaThe U.S. recognizes the Mexican government of Venustiano Carranza de facto (not de jure until 1917)Lyda Conley, the first American Indian woman to appear before the Supreme Court of the United States as a lawyer, is admitted to practice therePresident of the Republic of China Yuan Shikai declares himself EmperorThe German armed ship SMS Graf von Goetzen scuttles herself on Lake TanganyikaPortugal joins the AlliesFrench and British forces make an unopposed entry into German-controlled Togoland; on December 27 the country is partitioned between the two alliesThe Treaty of Bucharest is signed secretly between Romania and the Entente Powers, stipulating the conditions under which Romania agrees to join the war on their side, particularly territorial promises in Austria-HungaryThe Kingdom of Romania declares war on the Central Powers, entering the war on the side of the AlliesGermany declares war on RomaniaItaly declares war on GermanyBulgaria declares war on Romania, going on to take DobrujaBritish pilot Leefe Robinson becomes the first to shoot down a German airship over BritainDar es Salaam surrenders to British Empire forces, securing them control of the Central Line of railway through German East AfricaBelgian troops occupy Tabora in German East AfricaIn France, British Expeditionary Force commander Douglas Haig calls off the battle, which started on July 1Hospital ship HMHS Britannic, designed as the third Olympic-class ocean liner for White Star Line, sinks in the Kea Channel of the Aegean Sea after hitting a mine; 30 lives are lost. At 48,158 gross register tons, she is the largest ship lost during the warThe capital of Romania, is occupied by troops of the Central PowersThe Battle of Verdun ends in France with German troops defeatedEl Arish occupied by the British Empire Desert Column during advance across the Sinai PeninsulaThe Battle of MagdhabaThe Battle of RafaBritish armed merchantman SS Laurentic is sunk by mines off Lough Swilly (Ireland), with the loss of 354 of the 475 aboardThe United States ends its search for Pancho VillaPershing's troops in Mexico begin withdrawing back to the United States. They reach Columbus, New Mexico February 5Germany announces its U-boats will resume unrestricted submarine warfare, rescinding the 'Sussex Pledge'The United States severs diplomatic relations with GermanyUnited States ambassador to the United Kingdom, Walter Hines Page, is shown the intercepted Zimmermann Telegram, in which Germany offers to give the American Southwest back to Mexico, if Mexico would take sides with Germany, in case the United States would declare war on GermanyThe U.S. government releases the text of the Zimmermann Telegram to the publicWomen calling for bread in Petrograd start riots, which spontaneously spread throughout the cityVenustiano Carranza is elected president of Mexico; the United States gives de jure recognition of his governmentThe Russian Duma declares a Provisional Government. It was dissolved 4 months laterThe Republic of China terminates diplomatic relations with GermanyEmperor Nicholas II of Russia abdicates his throne and his son's claims. This is considered to be the end of the Russian Empire, after 196 yearsGrand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia refuses the throne, and power passes to the newly formed Provisional Government, under Prince Georgy LvovThe First Battle of GazaU.S. President Woodrow Wilson asks the United States Congress for a declaration of war on GermanyThe United States declares war on GermanyThe Autonomous Governorate of Estonia is formed within Russia, from the Governorate of Estonia and the northern part of the Governorate of LivoniaVladimir Lenin arrives at the Finland Station in PetrogradVladimir Lenin's April Theses are published.[3] They become very influential in the following July Days and Bolshevik RevolutionThe Selective Service Act passes the United States Congress, giving the President the power of conscriptionThe Raid on the Beersheba to Hafir el Auja railwayThe first major German bombing raid on London by fixed-wing aircraft leaves 162 dead and 432 injured.Greece joins the war on the side of the AlliesThe Battle of AqabaAlexander Kerensky becomes premier of the Russian Provisional Government, replacing Prince Georgy LvovThe Corfu DeclarationThe Negro Silent Protest ParadeThe Republic of China declares war on Germany and Austria-HungaryRussia is declared a republic, by the Provisional GovernmentLeon Trotsky is elected Chairman of the Petrograd SovietThe Mossovet (Moscow Soviet of People's Deputies) votes to side with the BolsheviksThe Battle of BroodseindeThe First Battle of PasschendaeleAt Vincennes outside Paris, Dutch dancer Mata Hari is executed by firing squad for spying for GermanyThe Battle of el Buqqar RidgeThe Battle of BeershebaEstonian and Russian Bolsheviks seize power in Tallinn, Autonomous Governorate of Estonia, two days before the October Revolution in PetrogradMilitants from Trotsky's committee join with trusty Bolshevik soldiers, to seize government buildings and pounce on members of the provisional governmentThe October RevolutionThe Battle of Mughar RidgeThe Battle of Ayun KaraThe Provincial Assembly of the Autonomous Governorate of Estonia declares itself the highest legal body in Estonia, in opposition to BolsheviksThe ANZAC Mounted Division occupies JaffaThe Action of 17 November 1917The Battle of NgomanoThe Bolsheviks offer peace terms to the GermansU.S. Navy destroyer USS Jacob Jones is torpedoed and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean by German submarine U-53, killing 66 crew in the first significant American naval loss of the warThe British Egyptian Expeditionary Force accepts the surrender of Jerusalem by the mayor, Hussein al-Husayni, following the effective defeat of the Ottoman Empire's Yildirim Army GroupGeneral Edmund Allenby leads units of the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force into Jerusalem on foot through, the Jaffa GateThe Egyptian Expeditionary Force secures the victory at the Battle of Jerusalem, by successfully defending Jerusalem from numerous Yildirim Army Group counterattacksThe Finnish Declaration of Independence is recognized by Russia, Sweden, Germany and FranceThe Red Army (The Workers and Peasants Red Army) is formed, in the Russian SFSR and Soviet UnionThe Russian Constituent Assembly proclaims the Russian Democratic Federative Republic, but is dissolved by the Bolshevik government on the same dayThe Ukrainian People's Republic declares independence from Bolshevik RussiaThe Battle of KämäräRussia switches from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar; the date skips from January 31 to February 14The Council of Lithuania adopts the Act of Independence of Lithuania, declaring Lithuania's independence from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist RepublicThe Imperial Russian Navy evacuates Tallinn through thick ice, over the Gulf of FinlandEstonia declares its independence from Russia, after seven centuries of foreign rule; German forces capture Tallinn the following dayGerman submarine U-19 sinks HMS Calgarian off Rathlin Island, Northern IrelandThe Central Powers and Bolshevist Russia sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, ending Russia's involvement in the warMoscow becomes the capital of Soviet RussiaThe Belarusian People's Republic declares independenceBessarabia votes to become part of the Kingdom of RomaniaArmenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia declare their independence from Russia as the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative RepublicThe Zeebrugge RaidGerman troops enter Don Host Oblast; they take Rostov on May 8The Second Ostend RaidThe Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic is abolished; Georgia declares its independence as the Democratic Republic of GeorgiaArmenia and Azerbaijan declare their independence as the First Republic of Armenia and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic respectivelyThe Austro-Hungarian dreadnought battleship SMS Szent István is sunk by two Italian MAS motor torpedo boats off the Dalmatian coastGrand Duke Michael of Russia is murdered, thereby becoming the first of the Romanovs to be killed by the BolsheviksThe Siberian Intervention is launched by the Allies, to extract the Czechoslovak Legion from the Russian Civil WarRMS Carpathia (famed for rescuing survivors of the RMS Titanic) is torpedoed and sunk off the east coast of Ireland, by Imperial German Navy submarine U-55; 218 of the 223 on board are rescuedThe Attack on OrleansAustralian hospital ship HMAT Warilda is torpedoed and sunk in the English Channel on passage from Le Havre to Southampton by German submarine SM UC-49 with the loss of 123 of the 801 people on boardThe British commander in Archangel is told to help the White RussiansThe Battle of Lake BaikalThe Battle of Ambos NogalesIn response to the October Revolution in Russia, Vladimir Lenin is shot and wounded by Fanny Kaplan in Moscow, but survivesThe Bolshevik government of Russia publishes the first official announcement of the Red Terror, a period of repression against political opponents, as an "Appeal to the Working Class" in the newspaper IzvestiaThe Battle of HavrincourtThe Balkan front offensive by the Serbian Army beginsThe Battle of ÉpehyThe Battle of Megiddo ends with the Battle of Haifa, Battle of Samakh, and Capture of TiberiasThe Third Transjordan attack ends with ANZAC Mounted Division victory at the Second Battle of Amman, with the subsequent capture at Ziza of the Ottoman II Corps, and more than 10,000 Ottoman and German prisonersBulgaria requests an armisticeThe Charge at KaukabThe Charge at KisweThe Charge at Khan AyashThe Regency Council (Poland) declares Polish independence from the German Empire, and demands that Germany cede the Polish provinces of Poznań, Upper Silesia and Polish PomeraniaIn the Forest of Argonne in France, U.S. Corporal Alvin C. York almost single-handedly kills 25 German soldiers and captures 132Units of the Desert Mounted Corps battle with Ottoman forces for the last time in WWICzechoslovakia declares its independence from Austria-HungaryThe State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs declares its independence from Austria-HungaryThe Armistice of MudrosThe Hungarian government terminates the personal union with Austria, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian EmpireThe Polish–Ukrainian War is inaugurated, by the proclamation of the West Ukrainian People's Republic in Galicia, with a capital at LwówSerbian forces recapture BelgradeAustria-Hungary enters an armistice with the Allies, at the Villa Giusti in PaduaPoland declares its independence from RussiaSailors in the German fleet at Kiel mutiny, and throughout northern Germany soldiers and workers begin to establish revolutionary councils, on the Russian soviet modelThe Armistice of Villa GiustiThe German army withdraws its support of the Kaiser. The German Armistice delegation arrives at the Forest of Compiègne in FranceKaiser Wilhelm II of Germany abdicates and chooses to live in exile in the NetherlandsThe German Republic is proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann in Berlin, on the Reichstag balconyBritish battleship HMS Britannia is sunk by a German submarine off Trafalgar, with the loss of around fifty lives (the last major naval engagement of WWI)The Armistice of 11 November 1918Poland regains independence, after 123 years of partitions. Józef Piłsudski is appointed Commander-in-ChiefAustria becomes a republicCzechoslovakia becomes a republicThe Second Polish Republic is proclaimed with Józef Piłsudski as head of stateThe Hungarian Democratic Republic is declared, marking Hungary's independence from AustriaLatvia declares its independence from RussiaThe Red Army invades Estonia, starting the war. The Commune of the Working People of Estonia is established as a Soviet puppet state in Narva on the next daySerbia annexes Montenegro, suspending the latter's existence as a sovereign state for nearly the entirety of the following 88 yearsThe Union of Alba Iulia is proclaimed: Following the March 27 incorporation of Bessarabia and Bucovina, Transylvania unites with the Kingdom of RomaniaThe Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (which later becomes the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) is proclaimed, in particular ending Serbia's existence as a sovereign state for the next 87 years (it would not regain its sovereignty until 2006)The British light cruiser HMS Cassandra strikes a mine and sinks near Saaremaa in the Baltic Sea, killing 11 sailorsVincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas declares the formation of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, a puppet state created by the Russian SFSR to justify the Lithuanian–Soviet WarTomáš Garrigue Masaryk returns to the Czechoslovak RepublicThe Red Army captures Tartu, EstoniaA British-brokered ceasefire ends the two weeks of fighting in the Georgian–Armenian WarThe Czechoslovak Legions occupy much of the self-proclaimed "free city" of Pressburg (now Bratislava), enforcing its incorporation into the new republic of CzechoslovakiaThe Faisal–Weizmann AgreementThe German Workers' Party (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, DAP), predecessor of the Nazi Party, is formed by the merger of Anton Drexler's Committee of Independent Workmen with journalist Karl Harrer's Political Workers' CircleWith Soviet Russian forces just 40 km of the capital Tallinn, Estonian forces start a general and successful counter-offensive against the Red ArmyRomania annexes TransylvaniaEstonian forces liberate Tartu from the Red ArmyEstonian forces liberate Narva, expelling the Red Army from Northern EstoniaThe Soloheadbeg AmbushThe League of Nations is founded in Paris, FranceEstonian forces liberate Valga and Võru, expelling the Red Army from the entire territory of EstoniaSoviet troops occupy UkraineSoviet troops occupy the city of Kiev after the Battle of Kiev (January 1919)The Battle of Bereza KartuskaThe Communist International (Comintern) is foundedThe Hungarian Soviet Republic is established by Béla KunThe Cleveland May Day riots of 1919Weimar Republic troops and the Freikorps occupy Munich and crush the Bavarian Soviet RepublicThe May Fourth MovementThe Greek landing at SmyrnaMustafa Kemal Atatürk lands at Samsun on the Anatolian Black Sea coast, marking the start of the Turkish War of Independence. The anniversary of this event is also an official day of Turkish YouthEstonian forces capture Pskov from the Red Army, and soon hand it over to the White forcesBy agreement with the United Kingdom, later confirmed by the League of Nations, Belgium is given the mandate over part of German East Africa (Ruanda-Urundi)The United States Congress approves the 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution, which would guarantee suffrage to women, and sends it to the states for ratificationThe advancing pro-German Baltische Landeswehr initiates war against Estonia in Northern LatviaThe Hungarian Red Army attacks the Republic of PrekmurjThe Reds army capture the city of Birsk from the White forcesThe Reds army recapture the city of UfaPancho Villa attacks Ciudad Juárez, Mexico. When the bullets begin to fly to the American side of the border, two units of the United States 7th Cavalry Regiment cross the border, to push Villa's forces from American territoryThe Scuttling of the German fleetThe Treaty of Versailles is signed, formally ending World War IThe pro-German Baltische Landeswehr signs a peace treaty with Estonia and Latvia. The pro-German Prime Minister of Latvia Andrievs Niedra resigns, and Latvian forces take over Riga on July 8The Romanian army liberates Timișoara from Hungarian occupationThe Romanian army occupies BudapestThe Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919In Germany, the Weimar Constitution is proclaimed to be in effect (ratified)The Bolshevik fleet at Kronstadt, protecting Petrograd on the Baltic Sea, is substantially damaged by British Royal Navy Coastal Motor Boats (torpedo boats) and military aircraft in a combined operationThe Red Army captures Pskov from White forcesThe Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-LayeThe last British Army troops leave Archangel, and leave the fighting to the RussiansIn Germany, Adolf Hitler gives his first speech for the German Workers' PartyThe United States Congress passes the Volstead Act, over President Woodrow Wilson's veto. Prohibition goes into effect on January 17, 1920, under the provisions of the 18th Amendment to the United States ConstitutionThe Northwestern Army of General Nikolai Yudenich retreats to Estonia and is disarmedAfter Entente pressure, Romanian forces withdraw from Budapest and allow Admiral Horthy to march inThe Treaty of Versailles fails a critical ratification vote in the United States Senate. It will never be ratified by the U.S.The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-SeineAmerican-born Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor, becomes the first woman to take her seat in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, having become the second to be elected on November 28The United States deports 249 people, including Emma Goldman, to Russia on the USAT BufordThe Russian Red Army increases troops along the Polish border from 4 divisions to 20The forces of Russian White Admiral Alexander Kolchak surrender in Krasnoyarsk; the Great Siberian Ice March ensuesThe Treaty of Versailles takes effect, officially ending World War IThe League of Nations Covenant enters into force. On January 16, the organization holds its first council meeting, in ParisThe Allies of World War I demand that the Netherlands extradite ex-German Emperor Wilhelm II who fled there in 1918The Tartu Peace TreatyAdmiral Kolchak and Viktor Pepelyayev are executed by firing squad near IrkutskAdolf Hitler presents his National Socialist Program in Munich to the German Workers' Party (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei), which renames itself as the Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei)The Syrian National Congress proclaims Syria independent, with Faisal I of Iraq as kingConstantinople is occupied by British Empire forces, acting for the Allied Powers against the Turkish National Movement. Retrospectively, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey regards this as the dissolution of the Ottoman regime in IstanbulThe United States Senate refuses to ratify the Treaty of VersaillesBritish recruits to the Royal Irish Constabulary begin to arrive in Ireland. They become known from their improvised uniforms as the "Black and Tans"The German army marches to the Ruhr, to fight the Ruhr Red ArmyÁlvaro Obregón flees from Mexico City (during a trial intended to ruin his reputation) to Guerrero, where he joins Fortunato MaycottePolish and anti-Soviet Ukrainian troops attack the Red Army in Soviet UkraineThe Khorezm People's Soviet Republic is officially created by Soviet Russia, as the successor to the Khanate of KhivaThe Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic is officially createdPolish troops occupy Kyiv. The government of the Ukrainian People's Republic returns to the citySoviet Russia recognizes the independence of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, only to invade the country six months laterFrench and Belgian troops leave the cities they have occupied in GermanyÁlvaro Obregón's troops enter Mexico CityVenustiano Carranza arrives in San Antonio Tlaxcalantongo; troops of Rodolfo Herrero attack him at night and shoot himVenustiano Carranza is buried in Mexico City; all of his mourning allies are arrested. Adolfo de la Huerta is elected provisional presidentThe Treaty of TrianonBolshevik cavalry break through Polish and Ukrainian lines south of Kyiv, precipitating eventual withdrawalThe Red Army retakes KyivDuluth lynchingsRepublic of China joined the League of NationsThe Red Army continues its offensive into PolandThe Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic recognizes independent LithuaniaThe Battle of MaysalunPancho Villa takes over Sabina and contacts Mexican President de la Huerta to offer his conditional surrender, which he signs on July 28Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI's representatives sign the Treaty of Sèvres with the Allied Powers, confirming arrangements for the partitioning of the Ottoman EmpireBolshevik Russia recognizes independent LatviaThe Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, guaranteeing women's suffrageMahatma Gandhi launches the Non-Cooperation Movement in India, with the goal of obtaining independence from British ruleSoviet Russia sues for peace with PolandPolish troops take VilniusA peace treaty between the Soviet and the Finnish governments is concluded at TartuAfter the Polish army captures Tarnopol, Dubno, Minsk and Dryssa, the ceasefire is enforcedThe League of Nations moves its headquarters to Geneva, SwitzerlandThe Treaty of RapalloThe White Army's last units and civilian refugees are evacuated from the Crimea on board 126 ships, the remnants of the Russian Imperial Navy, to Turkey, Tunisia and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, accompanied by wide-scale civilian massacres. The total number of evacuees amounts to approximately 150,000 people, of which 20% are civiliansThe council of the League of Nations accepts the constitution for the Free City of DanzigBloody SundayThe Kilmichael AmbushThe Mexican Revolution ends with a new regime coming to power, which couples with the end of the Old WestThe Treaty of AlexandropolFinland joins the League of NationsThe 8th Congress of Soviets of the Russian SFSR adopts the GOELRO plan, the major plan of the economical development of the countryThe United Kingdom and France ratify the border between French-held Syria and British-held PalestineThe Government of Ireland Act 1920, passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, receives Royal Assent from George V, providing for the partition of Ireland into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, with separate parliaments, granting a measure of home rule1921 Persian Coup d'étatThe Red Army enters the Georgian capital Tbilisi and installs a Moscow-directed communist governmentThe Clonbanin AmbushThe Russian White Army captures Mongolia from China; Roman von Ungern-Sternberg declares himself rulerThe Red Army crushes the Kronstadt rebellion, and a number of sailors flee to FinlandThe Peace of RigaThe Headford AmbushThe German-Soviet Provisional Agreement is signed; Germany recognises the Soviet government in the RSFSRThe Irish Republican Army occupies and burns The Custom House in Dublin, the centre of local government in Ireland. Five IRA men are killed, and over 80 are captured by the British Army which surrounds the buildingBessie Coleman gets her pilot's licence and becomes the first African American to earn an international pilot's licenceThe Irish War of Independence (aka the Anglo-Irish War) comes to a halt, after a truce is signed between the belligerentsThe Red Army captures Mongolia from the White Army, and establishes the Mongolian People's RepublicThe Anglo-Irish truce, agreed 10 days earlier, is officially declared in LondonThe Communist Party of China (CPC) launches the first founding National CongressAdolf Hitler becomes Führer of the Nazi PartyThe Treaty of KarsAfter a speech by Adolf Hitler in the Hofbräuhaus in Munich (Germany), members of the Sturmabteilung ("brownshirts") physically assault his oppositionThe National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista or PNF) is founded in ItalyThe Spanish Communist Party is foundedThe Anglo-Irish Treaty establishing the Irish Free State, an independent nation incorporating 26 of Ireland's 32 counties, is signed in LondonThe Four-Power TreatyDáil Éireann, the parliament of the Irish Republic, ratifies the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64–57 votesThe British government releases the remaining Irish prisoners captured in the War of IndependenceThe Washington Naval TreatyIn the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Cheka becomes the Gosudarstvennoye Politicheskoye Upravlenie (GPU), a section of the NKVDThe Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence by the United Kingdom ends its protectorate over Egypt, and grants the country nominal independence, reserving control of military and diplomatic mattersJoseph Stalin is appointed General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist PartyThe Treaty of RapalloBolshevik forces defeat Basmachi troops, under Enver PashaThe German protectorate of Togoland is divided into the League of Nations mandates of French Togoland and British TogolandThe Cherkess (Adyghe) Autonomous Oblast is established within the Russian SFSRGeneral Michael Collins is assassinated in West CorkJapan agrees to withdraw its troops from SiberiaTurkish forces pursuing withdrawing Greek troops enter İzmir, effectively ending the Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)The Mandate of Palestine is approved by the Council of the League of NationsThe Kingdom of Hungary joins the League of NationsThe 11 September 1922 RevolutionThe Red Army occupies VladivostokThe Ottoman Empire is abolished after 600 years, and its last sultan, Mehmed VI, abdicates, leaves for exile in Italy on November 17Popular author and anti-Treaty Republican Erskine Childers is executed by firing squad in Dublin, after conviction by an Irish Free State military court for the unlawful possession of a gun, a weapon presented to him by Michael Collins in 1920 as a giftRussia, Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasian Republic (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia) come together to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, dissolved in 1991Vladimir Lenin suffers his third stroke, which renders him bedridden and unable to speak; consequently he retires from his position as Chairman of the Soviet governmentPrince Albert, Duke of York (later George VI, King of the United Kingdom) marries Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (later Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother) in Westminster AbbeyThe 1923 Bulgarian coup d'étatThe storming of Ayan, Siberia concludes the Yakut Revolt and the Russian Civil WarThe Treaty of LausanneThe Irish Free State joins the League of NationsThe British Mandate for Palestine (1922) comes into effect, officially creating the protectorates of Palestine, as a homeland for the Jewish people under British administration, and Transjordan as a separate emirate, under Abdullah I.[11] The French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon also takes effectThe Küstrin PutschThe Occupation of Constantinople ends, when the great powers of World War I withdrawAnkara replaces Istanbul (Constantinople), as the capital of TurkeyRoy and Walt Disney found The Walt Disney CompanyIn Germany, General Hans von Seeckt orders the Reichswehr to dissolve the Social Democratic-Communist government of Saxony, which is refusing to accept the authority of the Reich governmentAdolf Hitler is arrested for his leading role in the Beer Hall Putsch, two days after the Putsch was crushed by the government; 20 people die as a result of the associated violenceThe Nepal–Britain Treaty is the first to define the international status of Nepal, as an independent sovereign countryFollowing the death of Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin immediately begins to purge his rivals to clear the way for his leadershipPetrograd (Saint Petersburg) is renamed Leningrad; it will revert to Saint Petersburg in 1991Lenin is buried in Lenin's Mausoleum, in Moscow's Red SquareThe United Kingdom recognizes the Soviet UnionThe Treaty of RomeThe Second Hellenic Republic is proclaimed in GreeceFascists win the elections in Italy with a ⅔ majorityLithuania signs the Klaipėda Convention with the nations of the Conference of Ambassadors, taking the Klaipėda Region from East Prussia and making it into an autonomous regionU.S. President Calvin Coolidge signs the Indian Citizenship Act into law, granting citizenship to all Native Americans born within the territorial limits of the United StatesThe Dawes Plan is signed in Paris, temporarily resolving German reparations disputeThe Geneva Protocol is adopted by the League of Nations Assembly as a means to strengthen the League, but later fails to be ratifiedThe Mongolian People's Republic is foundedThe 1924 Estonian coup d'état attemptIn Germany, Adolf Hitler is released from Landsberg Prison, after serving nine months for his crucial role in the Beer Hall Putsch, from 1923Benito Mussolini makes a pivotal speech in the Italian Chamber of Deputies.[1] Historians now trace this speech to the beginning of Mussolini's dictatorshipAfrican American Tom Lee rescues 32 people from the sinking steamboat M.E. Norman on the Mississippi RiverAdolf Hitler publishes Volume 1 of his personal manifesto Mein KampfThe Ku Klux Klan, the largest fraternal organization in the United States, demonstrates its popularity by holding a parade with an estimated 30,000-35,000 marchers in Washington DC.The French complete their evacuation of the Ruhr region of GermanyFormal foundation date of the Schutzstaffel (SS) as a personal bodyguard for Adolf Hitler in GermanyThe Locarno Treaties are signed in LondonThe Belgian Parliament accepts the Locarno TreatiesBritish and Belgian troops leave CologneAn assassination attempt against Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini failsThe Treaty of BerlinAfrican-American pilot Bessie Coleman is killed, after falling 500 feet (150 m) from an airplaneThe French navy bombards Damascus, because of Druze riotsThe United States Congress passes the Air Commerce Act, licensing pilots and planesThe 28 May 1926 coup d'étatDeFord Bailey is the first African-American to perform on Nashville's Grand Ole OpryLebanon under the French Mandate gets its first constitution, thereby becoming a republic. Charles Debbas is elected presidentThe German Weimar Republic joins the League of NationsIn Rome, Italy, Gino Lucetti throws a bomb at Benito Mussolini's car, but Mussolini is unhurtLeon Trotsky and Lev Kamenev are removed from the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet UnionThe 1926 Lithuanian coup d'étatIn the history of Japan, the Shōwa period begins from this day, due to the death of Emperor Taishō on the day before. His son Hirohito will reign as Emperor of Japan until 1989. Showa 1 in the Japanese calendar is just six days long, prior to January 1 Showa 2 (1927)The Cristero War erupts in Mexico, when Catholic rebels attack the government, which had placed heavy restrictions on the Catholic ChurchThe British Broadcasting Company becomes the British Broadcasting Corporation, when it is granted a Royal Charter of incorporationU.S. Marines invade Nicaragua by orders of President Calvin Coolidge, intervening in the Nicaraguan Civil War, and remaining in the country until 1933The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 renames the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The change acknowledges that the Irish Free State is no longer part of the KingdomApril 12 IncidentThe Kuomintang (Nationalist Chinese) set up a government in Nanking, ChinaKing George V proclaims the change of his title, from King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to King of Great Britain and Northern IrelandThe July Revolt of 1927The Nanchang UprisingThe Mount Rushmore Park is rededicated in the United States. President Calvin Coolidge promises national funding for the proposed carving of the presidential figuresThe Autumn Harvest UprisingThe Mexican government crushes a rebellion in VeracruzMahatma Gandhi makes his first and last visit to CeylonLeon Trotsky is expelled from the Soviet Communist Party, leaving Joseph Stalin with undisputed control of the Soviet UnionThree members of the revolutionary movement for Indian independence – Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil, Thakur Roshan Singh and Ashfaqulla Khan – are executed by the British Raj. Rajendra Nath Lahiri has been executed two days before"Litvinov's Pact" is signed in Moscow by the Soviet Union, Poland, Estonia, Romania and Latvia, who agree not to use force to settle disputes between themselvesThe Lateran Treaty"Saint Valentine's Day Massacre"Japanese forces withdraw from Shandong province to their garrison in Tsingtao, bringing an end to the Jinan IncidentThe 1st Conference of the Communist Parties of Latin America is held in Buenos AiresThe Treaty of Lima settles a border dispute between Peru and ChileIn the Soviet Union, a secret decree of the Sovnarkom creates the backbone of the Gulag systemThe Geneva Convention (1929)The Hebron massacreThe 1929 Safed RiotsThe Young Plan, which sets the total World War I reparations owed by Germany at US$26,350,000,000 to be paid over a period of 58½ years, is finalizedThe country officially known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes changes its name to Kingdom of YugoslaviaAfghan Civil War endsSoviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin orders the "liquidation of the kulaks as a class"The Communist Party of Vietnam is establishedThe Yên Bái MutinyMahatma Gandhi informs the British viceroy of India that civil disobedience will begin the following weekHeinrich Brüning is appointed Chancellor of GermanyIn an act of civil disobedience, Mahatma Gandhi breaks the Salt laws of British India, by making salt by the sea at the end of the Salt MarchThe United Kingdom, Japan and the United States sign the London Naval Treaty, to regulate submarine warfare and limit naval shipbuildingFrench Prime Minister André Tardieu decides to withdraw the remaining French troops from the Rhineland (they depart by June 30)President of the United States Herbert Hoover signs the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act into lawThe United States Department of Veterans Affairs is establishedThe OGPU arrests Leon Trotsky in Moscow; he assumes a status of passive resistanceLeon Trotsky is exiled to Alma-AtaThe March 15 incidentA bomb attack against Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini in Milan kills 17 bystandersThe United States recalls its troops from ChinaItaly and Ethiopia sign the Italo-Ethiopian TreatyJoseph Stalin launches the first five-year plan (1928–1932); the average nonfarm wage falls by 50% in the Soviet Union)Chiang Kai-shek is named as Generalissimo (Chairman of the National Military Council) of the Nationalist Government of the Republic of ChinaThe enthronement ceremony of Emperor of Japan Hirohito is held, two years after he actually took the imperial throne on December 26, 1926, following the death of Emperor TaishōThe United States Congress approves the construction of Boulder Dam, later renamed Hoover DamThe 6 January DictatorshipKabul falls to Habibullāh Kalakāni's forces, beginning a 9-month period of Saqqawist rule in Afghanistan while the Afghan Civil War continuesLynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram SmithTurkish troops move into Persia, to fight Kurdish insurgentsNational Socialists win 107 seats in the German Parliament, the Reichstag (18.3% of all the votes), making them the second largest partyThe Revolution of 1930Ratifications are exchanged in London on the first London Naval Treaty signed in April, modifying the Washington Naval Treaty of 1925. Its arms limitation provisions go into effect immediately, hence putting more limits on the expensive naval arms race between its five signatories (the United Kingdom, the United States, the Japanese Empire, France, and Italy.)President Herbert Hoover goes before the United States Congress to ask for a $150 million public works program, to help create jobs and to stimulate the American economyMohandas Gandhi is again released from imprisonment in IndiaSoviet leader Joseph Stalin gives a speech calling for rapid industrialization, arguing that only strong industrialized countries will win wars, while "weak" nations are "beaten". Stalin states: "We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this distance in ten years. Either we do it, or they will crush us." The first five-year plan in the Soviet Union is intensified, for the industrialization and collectivization of agricultureNational Socialist (NSDAP) and German National People's Party (DNVP) members walk out of the German Reichstag, in protest against changes in the parliament's protocol, intended to limit hecklingThe Star-Spangled Banner is adopted as the United States' National anthemThe British viceroy of India and Mohandas Gandhi sign the Gandhi–Irwin PactThe Ready for Labour and Defence of the USSR programme, abbreviated as GTO, is introduced in the Soviet UnionIndian revolutionary leaders Bhagat Singh, Shivaram Rajguru and Sukhdev Thapar are hanged for conspiracy to murder in the British RajThe Scottsboro Boys are arrested in Alabama, and charged with rapeThe Second Spanish Republic is proclaimed in Madrid. Meanwhile, as a result of the victory of the Republican Left of Catalonia, Francesc Macià proclaims in Barcelona the Catalan Republic, as a state of the Iberian FederationAfter the negotiations between the republican ministers of Spain and Catalonia, the Catalan Republic becomes the Generalitat of Catalonia, a Catalan autonomous government inside the Spanish RepublicAustria, the UK, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Sweden and the United States recognize the Spanish RepublicThe Castellammarese War ends with the murder of Joe "The Boss" Masseria, briefly leaving Salvatore Maranzano as capo dei capi ("boss of all bosses") of the American Mafia. Maranzano is himself murdered less than 6 months later, leading to the creation of the CommissionThe Creditanstalt, Austria's largest bank, goes bankrupt, beginning the banking collapse in Central Europe that causes a worldwide financial meltdownThe Chinese Communists inflict a sharp defeat on the Kuomintang forcesThe Second Encirclement Campaign against Jiangxi Soviet ends in the defeat of the KuomintangIn an attempt to stop the banking crisis in Central Europe from causing a worldwide financial meltdown, U.S. President Herbert Hoover issues the Hoover MoratoriumThe Murders of Paul Anlauf and Franz LenckWith a gun literally pointed to his head, the Chinese commander of Kirin province announces the annexation of that territory to JapanThe Chinese Soviet Republic is proclaimed by Mao ZedongRed China News Agency (a predecessor of the Xinhua News Agency) is officially founded, and news wire service start in Ruijin, Jiangxi Province, ChinaThe original Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow (1883) is dynamited, by order of Joseph StalinThe Spanish Constituent Cortes approves the Spanish Constitution of 1931, effectively establishing the Second Spanish RepublicThe Parliament of the United Kingdom enacts the Statute of Westminster, which establishes a status of legislative equality between the self-governing dominions of the Commonwealth of Australia, Canada, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, the Dominion of New Zealand and the Union of South AfricaThe British in India arrest and intern Mahatma Gandhi and Vallabhbhai PatelThe Stimson Doctrine is proclaimed, in response to the Japanese invasion of ManchuriaThe Sakuradamon incidentHattie W. Caraway becomes the first woman elected to the United States SenateJapanese warships arrive in NankingThe League of Nations again recommends negotiations between the Republic of China and JapanPope Pius XI meets Benito Mussolini in Vatican CityJapan declares Manchukuo (Japanese name for Manchuria) formally independent from ChinaWomen's suffrage is granted in BrazilAdolf Hitler obtains German citizenship by naturalization, opening the opportunity for him to run in the 1932 election for ReichspräsidentJapan installs Puyi as puppet emperor of ManchukuoÉamon de Valera is elected President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State, the first change of government in the country since its foundation 10 years previouslyPeace negotiations between China and Japan beginPaul von Hindenburg is re-elected president of GermanyGerman Chancellor Heinrich Brüning bans the SA and the SS as threats to public order, arguing that they are chiefly responsible for the wave of political violence afflicting GermanyKorean pro-independence paramilitary Yun Bong-gil detonates a bomb at a gathering of Japanese government and military officials in Shanghai's Hongkou Park, killing General Yoshinori Shirakawa and injuring Mamoru Shigemitsu and Vice Admiral Kichisaburō NomuraThe politically powerful General Kurt von Schleicher meets secretly with Adolf Hitler.[2] Schleicher tells Hitler that he is scheming to bring down the Brüning government in Germany and asks for Nazi support of the new "presidential government" Schleicher is planning to form.[2] Schleicher and Hitler negotiate a "gentlemen's agreement" where in exchange for lifting the ban on the SA and SS and having the Reichstag dissolved for early elections this summer, the Nazis will support Schleicher's new chancellorViolent scenes in the Reichstag building as Hermann Göring and other Nazi MRDs attack the Defense Minister General Wilhelm Groener for his lack of belief in a supposed Social Democratic putsch.[2] After the debate, General Schleicher tells Groener that he has lost the confidence of the Army and must resign at onceThe May 15 IncidentThe Bonus ArmyGerman chancellor Heinrich Brüning is dismissed by President von Hindenburg. President Hindenburg asks Franz von Papen to form a new government, known as the "Government of the President's Friends", which is openly dedicated to the destruction of democracy and the Weimar Republic. The downfall of Brüning is largely the work of Schleicher, who been scheming against him since the beginning of May.[1] Schleicher takes the position of Defense Minister in his friend Papen's governmentThe Papen government in Germany dissolves the Reichstag for elections on July 31 in the full expectation that the Nazis will win the largest number of seatsThe Revenue Act of 1932 is enacted, creating the first gas tax in the United States at 1 cent per US gallon (0.26 ¢/L) soldThe Papen government lifts the ban against the SS and SA in GermanyThe Dow Jones Industrial Average in the United States reaches its lowest level of the Great Depression, bottoming out at 41.22Altona Bloody SundayThe Preußenschlag of 1932U.S. President Herbert Hoover orders the U.S. Army to evict by force the Bonus Army of World War I veterans gathered in Washington, D.C. Troops disperse the last of the Bonus Army the next dayJuly 1932 German Federal ElectionHitler meets with Schleicher and reneges on the "gentlemen's agreement", demanding that he be appointed Chancellor.[7] Schleicher agrees to support Hitler as Chancellor provided that he can remain minister of defense.[8] Schleicher sets up a meeting between Hindenburg and Hitler on for August 13 to discuss Hitler's possible appointment as chancellorThe Potempa Murder of 1932Hitler meets President von Hindenburg and asks to be appointed as Chancellor.[13] Hindenburg refuses under the grounds that Hitler is not qualified to be Chancellor and asks him instead to serve as Vice-Chancellor in Papen's government.[12] Hitler announces his "all or nothing" strategy in which he will oppose any government not headed by himself and will accept no office other than ChancellorThe five SA men involved in the torture and murder of Konrad Pietrzuch are quickly convicted and sentenced to death under the new law introduced by the Papen government.[9] The Potempa case becomes a cause célèbre in Germany with the Nazis demonstrating for amnesty for the "Potempa five" under the grounds they were justified in killing the Communist Pietrzuch. Hitler sends a telegram congratulating the "Potempa five".[9] Many Germans argue that the "Potempa five" are patriotic heroes who should not be execuThe very unpopular Papen government in Germany is defeated on a massive motion of no-confidence in the Reichstag. With the exceptions of the German People's Party and the German National People's Party, every party in the Reichstag votes for the no-confidence motion. Papen has Hindenburg dissolve the Reichstag for new elections in NovemberMahatma Gandhi begins a hunger strike in Poona prison, IndiaThe Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd is proclaimed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, concluding the country's unification under the rule of Ibn SaudRyutin Affair at its height in the Soviet Union. The Politburo meets and condemns the so-called "Ryutin Platform" and agrees to expel those associated with it from the Communist Party, but refuses Stalin's request to execute those associated with the PlatformIraq becomes an independent kingdom under FaisalNovember 1932 German Federal ElectionGerman president Hindenburg begins negotiations with Adolf Hitler about the formation of a new governmentGermany returns to the World Disarmament Conference after the others powers agree to accept gleichberechtigung[clarification needed] "in principle". Henceforward, it is clear that Germany will be allowed to rearm beyond the limits imposed by the Treaty of VersaillesAt a secret meeting of the Nazi leaders, Strasser urges Hitler to drop his "all or nothing" strategy and accept Schleicher's offer to have the Nazis serve in his cabinet.[18] Hitler gives a dramatic speech saying that Schleicher's offer is not acceptable and he will stick to his "all or nothing" strategy whatever the consequences might be and wins the Nazi leadership over to his viewpointThe Cologne banker Kurt von Schröder-who is a close friend of Papen and a NSDAP member-meets with Adolf Hitler to tell him that Papen wants to set up a meeting to discuss how they can work together. Papen wants Nazi support to return to the Chancellorship while Hitler wants Papen to convince Hindenburg to appoint him Chancellor. Hitler agrees to meet Papen on January 3, 1933The United States Congress votes in favour of Philippines independence, against the wishes of U.S. President Herbert HooverThe Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, changing Inauguration Day from March 4 to January 20, starting in 1937The Royal Navy captures the Spanish ship of the line Princesa off Cape Finisterre, and takes her into British serviceFrederick II comes to power in Prussia upon the death of his father, Frederick William IThe Battle of Fort MoseJews are expelled from Little RussiaThe song Rule, Britannia! is first performed at Cliveden, the country home of Frederick, Prince of Wales, in EnglandMaria Theresa inherits the hereditary dominions of the Habsburg Monarchy (Austria, Bohemia, Hungary and modern-day Belgium) under the terms of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. However, her succession to the Holy Roman Empire is contested widely because she is a womanFrederick II of Prussia invades the Habsburg possession of Silesia, starting the War of the Austrian SuccessionPrussian troops bring down the Austrian fortress of Glogau (now Głogów in Poland)The Royal Navy brings 180 warships, frigates and transport vessels, led by Admiral Edward Vernon, to threaten Cartagena, with more than 27,000 crew against the 3,600 defendersThe Conspiracy of 1741The Battle of MollwitzKing George II of Great Britain orders the British Army to prepare for an invasion of Prussia to defend HanoverRobert Walpole is made Earl of Orford, and resigns as First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer, effectively ending his period as Prime Minister of Great Britain.[1] On his formally relinquishing office five days later, he will have served 20 years and 314 days as Prime Minister, the longest single term ever, and also longer than the accumulated terms of any other British Prime MinisterTroops of the Kingdom of Prussia, Saxony and France, under the command of Prince Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau, capture the Moravian town of Iglau (now Jihlava). At that point, the Saxons and French declare that their obligations to Prussia have ceasedFrederick the Great's army defeats the Austrians in ChotusitzThe Battle of SahayThe Treaty of BreslauThe Battle of Bloody MarshA British fleet led by Commodore William Martin enters the harbor of Naples with three warships, two frigates, and four bomb vessels, and sends a message giving the King Charles VII of Naples (the future King Charles III of Spain) 30 minutes to agree to withdraw Neapolitan troops from the Spanish Army. Don Carlos agrees and ends the threat of a Spanish foothold in ItalyA British expeditionary fleet under Sir Charles Knowles is defeated by the Spanish in the Battle of La GuairaThe Battle of DettingenAt a summit in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, the British colonies of Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania conclude a treaty with the Six Nations, conceding that the member tribes are entitled to the territory west of the Appalachian mountains and as north of the Ohio RiverKing Louis XIV of France informs King Philip V of Spain of his intent to try to restore the House of Stuart to the throne of the United Kingdom. James Francis Edward Stuart was briefly the Crown Prince of England and Scotland until his father, King James II, was deposed in 1688 and, as Pretender to the Throne, would become King James III if the attack, planned for January 1, 1744 succeedsThe Royal Navy ship Bacchus engages the Spanish Navy privateer Begona and sinks it. Ninety of the 120 Spanish sailors die, but 30 of the crew is rescuedFrance declares war on Great BritainThe Battle of VillafrancaThe Union of Germany is proclaimed in Frankfurt Frederick II of Prussia, as articles of union are signed between Prussia, Hesse-Kassel and the Rhineland PalatinateThe Raid on CansoAlexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin is named as the new Chancellor of the Russian Empire by the Empress ElizabethAt the age of 15, Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, the future Empress of Russia, is received into the Russian Orthodox Church after converting from the Lutheran faith. Upon her conversion to the Russian Orthodox religion, she is given the name Yekaterina (Catherine). In 1762, she takes the throne as the Empress Catherine II, later known as Catherine the GreatThe Battle of CasteldelfinoThe Battle of VelletriThe Battle of Madonna dell'OlmoThe Prussian Army, under the command of Field Marshal Kurt Christoph Graf von Schwerin, begins the bombardment of Prague. The Bohemian capital surrenders after two weeksThe Austrian Army, under the command of Field Marshal Károly József Batthyány, makes a surprise attack at Amberg and the winter quarters of the Bavarian Army, and scatters the Bavarian defending troops, then captures the Bavarian capital at MunichBattle of Falkirk MuirThe Battle of CullodenThe Battle of PiacenzaThe Battle of RocouxFirst Battle of Cape FinisterreBattle of LauffeldThe Netherlands city of Bergen op Zoom falls to the Army of France after a 70 day siege during the War of the Austrian SuccessionSecond Battle of Cape FinisterreBattle of HavanaThe Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle is signed to end the war. Great Britain obtains Madras, in India, from France, in exchange for the fortress of Louisbourg in CanadaAustria and Spain sign a second treaty to settle the War of the Austrian Succession, and Austria agrees to remove its troops from Modena and GenoaThe Province of South Carolina House of Assembly votes to free African-American slave Caesar Norman, and to grant him a lifetime pension of 100 British pounds per year, in return for Caesar's agreement to share the secret of his antidote for poisonous snake venom. Caesar then makes public his herbal cure of juice from Plantago major (the common plantain) and Marrubium vulgare (horehound), combined with "a leaf of good tobacco moistened with rum"A group of West African slaves, bound for America, successfully overpowers the British crew of the slave ship Snow Ann, imprisons the survivors, and then navigates the ship back to Cape Lopez in Gabon.[8] Upon regaining their freedom, the rebels leave the survivors on the Gabonese coastCrispus Attucks, an African-American slave who will later become the first person killed in the Boston Massacre of 1770, escapes from the Framingham, Massachusetts estate of slaveowner William Brown.[20][21] In an unsuccessful attempt to recapture the fugitive, Brown runs an advertisement on October 2 in the Boston Gazette, but Attucks eludes recaptureSpain and the United Kingdom sign a treaty temporarily eliminating their hostility over their colonies in the North and South America.[22] In addition to both sides dropping their claims for damages against each other, Spain agrees to pay the South Sea Company £100,000 for damage claimsIn the aftermath of the Lhasa riot of 1750, Chinese General Ban Di arrives at the capital of Tibet on behalf of the Qianlong Emperor and the seven imprisoned leaders of the rebellion are turned over to his custody by the 7th Dalai Lama, Keizang Gyatzo. General Ban Di guides the interrogation under torture of rebel leader Lobsang Trashi and, after five days orders the beheading and dismemberment of the seven rebelsFrederick, Prince of Wales, heir-apparent to the British throne, dies of a pulmonary embolism at the age of 44 after a game of cricket. His 12-year-old son, Prince George, becomes the heir-apparent and will later become King George III. [12] George's mother Augusta of Saxe-Gotha becomes Dowager Princess of WalesThe Qianlong Emperor of China visits the southern capital of Nanjing for the first time, bringing with him 3,000 staff and 6,690 horses and stays for four daysGreat Britain and the British Empire use the Julian calendar for the last time and adopt the Gregorian calendar, making the next day Thursday, September 14 in the English-speaking world. A newspaper at the time notes the next day that "Altho' we have more than once, for the Information of our Readers, publish'd some Accounts of the Alteration of the Style, which took Place this Day, agreeable to a late Act of Parliament, in all his Majesty's Dominions in Europe, Asia, Africa and America""Father Le Loutre's War", the war between the British Canadian colonists of Nova Scotia and the indigenous Mi'kmaq (Micmac) tribe halts temporarily when a peace treaty is signed between the warring parties at Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia.[21] Governor Hopson, accompanied by former Governor Cornwallis, signs on behalf of the British and Chief Kopit (Jean-Baptiste Cope), the Sakamaw of the Mi'kmaq, signs on behalf of his peopleThe Jewish Naturalisation Act 1753 is passed by Britain's House of Lords, permitting Jewish immigrants to England to become naturalized citizens "without receiving the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper".[2] The bill, introduced by George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, passes the House of Commons on May 22Virginia Lieutenant Governor Dinwiddie commissions 21-year-old militia Major George Washington to dissuade the French from occupying the Ohio CountrySpain's King Fernando VI issues a set of 25 regulations and restrictions for theatrical performances, including a requirement that the directors of the acting troupes "take the greatest care that the necessary modesty is preserved" and that the actors should be reminded that chastity requires that "indecent and provocative" dances should be avoidedMajor George Washington and British guide Christopher Gist arrive at Fort Le Boeuf (near modern-day Waterford, Pennsylvania and the city of Erie), a French fortress built in territory claimed by the British Crown Colony of Virginia. Washington presents the fort's commander, French Army Captain Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, a message from Virginia's Lieutenant Governor Dinwiddie advising that "The lands upon the Ohio River are so notoriously known to be the property of the Crown of Great Britain that itBattle of Jumonville GlenBattle of Fort NecessityChina's Qianlong Emperor reverses a longstanding policy that barred Chinese subjects from ever returning to China if they remained out of the country for more than three yearsLieutenant Colonel George Washington is forced to confront his first mutiny as 25 members of his Virginia militia refuse to obey orders from their officers. Washington, who is attending church services at the time, quickly suppresses the rebellion and the mutineers are imprisoned before more joinGeneral Edward Braddock and 1,600 British sailors and soldiers arrive at Alexandria, Virginia on transport ships that have sailed up the Potomac River. Braddock, sent to take command of the British forces against the French in North America, commandeers taverns and private homes to feed and house the troopsFrance dispatches 3,600 troops to protect its Canadian colonies in Quebec from a British invasion, dispatching 2,400 to Quebec city and 1,200 to Louisbourg in Nova Scotia, unaware that a squadron of 11 fully armed warships from Britain's Royal Navy had sailed toward Canada on April 27France completes the construction of Fort Duquesne, its new base to the west of the British colony of Pennsylvania. The British capture the fort during the French and Indian War and rename it Fort Pitt. The site, at the junction of the Allegheny River and the Monongahela River, is now PittsburghAfter a two-week siege, the French commander of Fort Beauséjour in North America surrenders to the British, marking the end of "Father Le Loutre's War"Most of the French troops dispatched to Canada arrive at Quebec, along with the new Governor General of New France, Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-CavagnialBattle of Lake GeorgeFort Oswego falls to the FrenchFrederick II of Prussia invades Saxony, beginning the Third Silesian War within the Seven Years' War on the European continentBattle of LobositzBattle of MinorcaThe British Army, under the command of Robert Clive, captures Calcutta in IndiaAt Versailles in France, representatives of the Russian Empire and the Austrian Empire enter into an alliance against Prussia, with each nation pledging 80,000 troops. [3] Other clauses to the treaty, not disclosed to the public, commit Austria to pay Russia one million rubles per year during the war to pay for the expenses of 24,000 of the Russian troops, and two million rubles upon the conquest of Silesia (a Prussian province that had been seized from Austria in 1746)Sweden signs an alliance treaty with France and Austria in the multinational effort to remove King Frederick the Great, even though Queen Consort Ulrika of Sweden is Frederick's sister. Sweden agrees to contribute 25,000 troops to the French and Austrian forceThe British East India Company takes control of Chandannagar and forces out the French Indian administratorsFrance and Austria sign a second treaty of alliance at Versailles, committing France to sending an additional 105,000 troops to the war against Prussia, and to pay expenses to Austria at the rate of 12 million florins annuallyBattle of PragueBattle of KolínBattle of PlasseyThe 1755 rebellion against the Chinese Empire by Mongolian Oirat Prince Amursana is met by a Chinese army of 10,000 attackers against Amursana's 2,500 man force at their capital at Bor Tal. The rebels are able to hold out for 17 days before being routedBattle of HastenbeckBattle of Gross-JägersdorfA column of troops from Sweden begins the surprise invasion of Prussia, setting up a pontoon bridge across the Peene River that marks the boundary between Swedish Pomerania and northern Prussia. After crossing at Loitz in the early morning hours, the troops march 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) and begin the occupation of the undefended Prussian town of Demmin. Hours later, another Swedish infantry regiment charges across the border into the Prussian town of Anklam, where the city gate had been left openBattle of RossbachBattle of BreslauBattle of LeuthenRussian troops under the command of William Fermor invade East Prussia and capture Königsberg with 34,000 soldiers; although the city is later abandoned by Russia after the Seven Years' War ends, the city again comes under Russian control in 1945 during World War II and is now named KaliningradA fleet of 158 British Royal Navy warships, under the command of Admiral Edward Boscawen, departs from Plymouth toward North America in an effort to conquer the French Canadian territories of New France. Many of the sailors die of nutritional deficiencies along the way, including the scurvy that kills 26 of the crew of HMS Pembroke, captained by future world explorer James Cook on his first long voyageBattle of CuddaloreBattle of KrefeldBattle of DomstadtlBattle of ZorndorfBritish troops under the command of Colonel John Bradstreet capture Fort Frontenac (near the site of what is now Kingston, Ontario) from the FrenchBattle of HochkirchFrench forces abandon Fort Duquesne to the British, who then name the area PittsburghThe Comte de Lally (Thomas Lally) ends the French Army's two-month siege of the British Indian fort at Madras and retreatsBattle of BergenNew
eventAfter arriving at Canada, the Royal Navy fleet sails out of British-controlled Halifax toward the St. Lawrence River to prepare the invasion of French QuebecIn Canada, British forces capture Fort Niagara from the French, who subsequently abandon Fort RouilléBattle of MindenBattle of KunersdorfBattle of the Plains of AbrahamBattle of Quiberon BayBattle of MaxenBattle of WandiwashTwo of the six French ships run into a British blockade led by Britain's Admiral Edward Boscawen. Of the remaining four, one sinks before it can reach North AmericaBattle of Sainte-FoyBattle of WarburgBattle of LiegnitzRussian troops enter BerlinBattle of Kloster-KampBattle of TorgauThe Austrian Empire and the Russian Empire sign a new treaty of allianceAustrian Field Marshal Ernst Gideon von Laudon captures the Prussian town of Schweidnitz (now Świdnica in Poland) during the Seven Years' WarAfter four months of siege, the Russians under Pyotr Rumyantsev take the Prussian fortress of KolbergBritain enters the Seven Years' War against Spain and NaplesA Royal Navy fleet with 16,000 men departs Britain from Spithead and sets sail toward Cuba in order to seize strategic Spanish Empire possessions in the AmericasThe Treaty of Saint Petersburg ends the war between Russia and Prussia, and returns all of Russia's territorial conquests to the GermansBattle of WilhelmsthalBattle of BurkersdorfBattle of Signal HillBattle of FreibergThe Treaty of Paris ends the war, and France cedes Canada (New France) to Great BritainThe Treaty of Hubertusburg puts an end to the Seven Years' War between Prussia and Austria, and their allies France and RussiaThe Royal Proclamation of 1763 is issued by George III of the United Kingdom, restricting the westward expansion of British North America, and stabilizing relations with the indigenous peoples of the Americas, by barring white settlement of lands west of the Appalachian MountainsAfter the British victory in the French and Indian War, the first post-war British expedition to explore the newly-acquired territories east of the Mississippi River comes under attack by Tunica warriors. The 340 British Army men, under the command of Major Arthur Loftus, were at a spot south of Natchez, Mississippi and were forced to flee in their boats back toward the port of New Orleans while under fire from an unknown number of Tunicas firing from both banksThe Sugar Act is passed in Great BritainThe Treaty of Fort Niagara is signed between Great Britain and 44 North American Indian nations,[20] bring an end to the ongoing war that had started in 1756 with most of the northern Indian tribes. Sir William Johnson appears on behalf of Britain, and principal chiefs appear for the Iroquois Confederacy, Wabash Confederacy, Illini Confederacy, Haudenosaunee, Seneca, Wyandot, Menominee, Algonquin, Nipissing, Ojibwa, Mississaugas, Mohawk, Abenaki, Huron, and OnondagaIsaac Barré, a member of the British House of Commons for Wycombe and a veteran of the French and Indian War in the British American colonies, coins the term "Sons of Liberty" in a rebuttal to Charles Townshend's derisive description of the American colonists during the introduction of the proposed Stamp Act. MP Barré notes that "They fled from your tyranny to a then uncultivated and unhospitable country... And yet, actuated by the principles of true English liberty, they met all these hardships with pleasuRoyal assent is given to the Duties in American Colonies Act 1765, historically referred to as the Stamp Act, imposing the first direct tax levied from Great Britain on the thirteen American colonies, effective November 1.[5] The revenue measure (which requires the purchase of a stamp to be affixed for validation of all legal documents, but also to licensed newspapers and even playing cards and dice) is made to help defray the costs for British military operations in North America, including the French and Great Britain passes the Quartering Act, requiring private households in the thirteen American colonies to house British soldiers if necessaryIn protest at the Stamp Act, Bostonians attack the home of official Andrew OliverThe Pennsylvania Gazette reports that a Mr. McCullough, the Distributor of Stamps for the Royal Colony of North Carolina, has resigned his post in protest at the Stamp Act. A Dr. Huston is appointed to the positionThe Stamp Act goes into effect in the thirteen American coloniesThe Pennsylvania Gazette reports that Dr. Huston, the recently instated Distributor of Stamps for the Royal Colony of North Carolina, has resigned his post in protest at the Stamp ActProtesting against the Stamp Act 1765, members of the New York City Sons of Liberty travel to Pennsylvania and set fire to a British supply of tax stamps before the stamps can be taken to distributors in the province of MarylandThe British Parliament repeals the Stamp Act, which has been very unpopular in the British colonies; the persuasion of Benjamin Franklin is considered partly responsible. The Declaratory Act asserts the right of Britain to bind the colonies in all other respectsBritish Chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend, having already pushed through the unpopular Townshend Acts to recoup war expenses from Britain's American colonies, presents a comprehensive plan for more taxes in a closed door session of the House of Commons, with most proposals passed within a monthTroops of the Burmese Konbaung Dynasty sack the Siamese city of Ayutthaya, ending the Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67) after 15 months, and bringing the four-century-old Ayutthaya Kingdom to an end. King Ekkathat is found dead inside the city walls on April 9The new American Colonies Act 1766, commonly called the "Declaratory Act", goes into effect, virtually providing for Great Britain's Parliament to govern lawmaking in 13 colonies and exacerbating tensions thereFuture Pennsylvania chief executive John Dickinson begins publishing his revolutionary "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania" in the Pennsylvania ChronicleWith Russian troops occupying the nation, opposition legislators of the national legislature having been deported, the government of Poland signs a treaty virtually turning the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth into a protectorate of the Russian EmpireCatherine the Great of Russia dispatches troops under General Pyotr Krechetnikov to intervene in a civil war in Poland, at the request of Poland's King Stanisław II Augustus, a move that will ultimately lead to the Partitions of Poland"The Liberty Song", the first American patriotic song, is published in the Boston Gazette and includes the refrain "In freedom we're born"The Imperial Court of China's Emperor Qianlong and his three senior grand councilors, Fuheng, Yenjisan and Liu T'ung-hsun, issues a directive to officials in the Zhejiang, Jiangsu and Shandong provinces warning them about the need to respond to rumors of sorceryThe British Army's 29th Infantry Regiment of foot soldiers, which will carry out the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770, arrives in Boston Harbor along with three other regiments. The 700 foot soldiers march through the Massachusetts colony's capital as a show of force and begin their occupation.[15] Within a year, there will be "nearly 4,000 armed redcoats in the crowded seaport of 15,000 inhabitantsCharles III of Spain sends Spanish missionaries, who found California missions in San Diego, Santa Barbara, San Francisco and Monterey, and begin the settlement of CaliforniaChristopher Seider, an 11-year-old boy in Boston at the British Province of Massachusetts Bay, is shot and killed by a colonial official, Ebenezer Richardson. The funeral sets off anti-British protests that lead to the massacre days laterBoston MassacreThe Townshend Acts were repealed by Britain's Parliament by the efforts of Prime Minister Frederick North, with the exception of the increased duties on imported tea. The American colonists, in turn, stopped their embargo on British importsFourteen-year-old Marie Antoinette arrives at the French courtMarie Antoinette marries Louis-Auguste (who later becomes King Louis XVI of France)A stampede, at a celebration of the newly wedded Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste in Paris, kills more than a hundred peopleBattle of LargaBattle of CahulPhillis Wheatley becomes the first African American woman to have her work published, after having written a poetic elegy to the late Reverend George WhitefieldKing Louis XV of France issues the "Edict of December", dismissing the rebellious magistrates of the Parlements of Paris and the other 13 provincesEmperor Go-Momozono accedes to the throne of Japan, following his aunt's abdicationRussian forces occupy the Crimea,[5] under Prince Vasily DolgorukovGaspee AffairRevolution of 1772Samuel Adams and Joseph Warren form the first Committee of CorrespondenceThe Parliament of Great Britain passes the Tea Act (coming into force on May 10), designed to save the British East India Company by granting it a monopoly on the North American tea tradeBoston Tea PartyAn angry crowd in Boston, Massachusetts seizes, tars and feathers British customs collector and Loyalist John Malcolm, for striking a boy and a shoemaker, George Hewes, with his caneThe Boston Journal makes the first reference to the "Stars and Stripes" flag to symbolize the American colonies, reporting that "The American ensign now sparkles a door which shall shortly flame from the skiesThe British Parliament passes the Boston Port Act, closing the port of Boston, Massachusetts as punishment for the Boston Tea PartyLouis XVI becomes King of France, following the death of his grandfather, Louis XVA new Quartering Act, requiring American colonists to provide better housing for British soldiers upon demand, is passedBattle of KozludzhaRussia and the Ottoman Empire sign the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca with Russian victory, ending six years of war. The treaty gives Russia the right to intervene in Ottoman politics, to protect its Christian subjectsThe First Continental Congress assembles in PhiladelphiaThe Continental Congress in America adopts the first "Declaration of Rights", with 10 principlesThe word Liberty is first displayed on a flag raised by colonists in Taunton, Massachusetts, in defiance of British rule in Colonial AmericaThe first Continental Congress adjourns in PhiladelphiaA boycott called by the Continental Congress goes into effect, as participating merchants and supporters cease the importation or consumption of products from Great Britain, Ireland or the British West IndiesKing Louis XVI of France issues a declaration that, for the first time, protects "the free commerce of meat during Lent" to support the needs of "the poor whose infirmity requires them to eat meatThe Parliament of Great Britain declares the Province of Massachusetts Bay to be in rebellionCatherine the Great of Russia issues a manifesto prohibiting freed serfs from being returned to serfdomPatrick Henry, a delegate to the Second Virginia Convention after the Virginia House of Burgesses was disbanded by the Royal Governor, delivers his "Give me Liberty, or give me Death!" speech at St. John's Church in Richmond, VirginiaMidnight RideBattles of Lexington and ConcordThe Second Continental Congress meets, elects John Hancock president, raises the Continental Army under George Washington as commander and authorizes the colonies to adopt their own constitutionsThe Capture of Fort TiconderogaThe Continental Congress names George Washington as commander of the Continental ArmyBattle of Bunker HillGeorge Washington takes command of the 17,000-man Continental Army at CambridgeThe Continental Congress issues Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, which contains the words: "Our cause is just. Our union is perfect... being with one mind resolved to die freemen rather than to live slaves..."Battle of Longue-PointeThe Continental Congress orders the establishment of the Continental Navy (later the United States Navy)American forces under Brigadier General Richard Montgomery capture Montreal. British General Guy Carleton escapes to QuebecBattle of QuebecBurning of NorfolkBattle of Moore's Creek BridgeThreatened by Patriot cannons on Dorchester Heights, the British evacuate Boston, ending the 11‑month Siege of BostonThe Royal Colony of North Carolina produces the Halifax Resolves, making it the first British colony to officially authorize its Continental Congress delegates, to vote for independence from the Kingdom of Great BritainRhode Island becomes the first American colony to renounce allegiance to King George III of Great BritainRichard Henry Lee of Virginia proposes to the Second Continental Congress (meeting in Philadelphia) that "these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent statesBattle of Trois-RivièresThe Continental Congress appoints a Committee of Five to draft a Declaration of IndependenceBattle of Sullivan's IslandBattle of Turtle Gut InletThe final U.S. Declaration of Independence (with minor revisions) is written. The Continental Congress passes the Lee ResolutionThe Continental Congress ratifies the declaration by the United States of its independence from the Kingdom of Great BritainThe Liberty Bell rings in Philadelphia, for the first public reading of the Declaration of IndependenceAn angry mob in New York City topples the equestrian statue of George III of Great Britain in Bowling GreenThe first Hessian troops land on Staten Island, to join British forcesBattle of Long IslandThe American submersible craft Turtle attempts to attach a time bomb to the hull of British Admiral Richard Howe's flagship HMS Eagle, in New York HarborThe Continental Congress officially names its union of states the United StatesLanding at Kip's BayBattle of Harlem HeightsNathan Hale is executed by the British in New York City, for espionageBattle of Valcour IslandBattle of Pell's PointBattle of White PlainsBattle of Fort WashingtonBattle of Fort LeeThe Marquis de Lafayette attempts to enter the American military as a major generalThomas Paine, living with Washington's troops, publishes the first in the series of pamphlets on The American Crisis in The Pennsylvania Journal, opening with the stirring phrase, "These are the times that try men's soulsBattle of TrentonBattle of the Assunpink CreekBattle of PrincetonThe Continental Congress approves a resolution "that an authentic copy, with names of the signers of the Declaration of independence, be sent to each of the United StatesThe Fourth Continental Congress, with John Hancock as President, begins a 199 day session in Philadelphia, lasting until September 18Battle of Bound BrookBattle of RidgefieldThe Marquis de Lafayette lands near Georgetown, South Carolina, to help the Continental Congress train its armyThe Stars and Stripes is adopted by the Continental Congress as the flag of the United StatesThe 1777 Constitution of Vermont is signed, officially abolishing slaveryBattle of HubbardtonBattle of OriskanyBattle of BenningtonBattle of Cooch's BridgeBattle of BrandywineBattle of Freeman's FarmBritish troops occupy Philadelphia; members of the Continental Congress flee to Lancaster, Pennsylvania where they meet and hold a one day session as the Fifth Congress before fleeing againBattle of GermantownBattle of Forts Clinton and MontgomeryBattle of Bemis HeightsBattle of SaratogaAfter 16 months of debate, the Continental Congress approves the Articles of Confederation, in the temporary American capital at York, PennsylvaniaThe Articles of Confederation are submitted to the states for ratificationThe United States celebrates its first Thanksgiving, marking October's victory by the American rebels over British General John Burgoyne at SaratogaGeorge Washington's Continental Army goes into winter quarters at Valley Forge, PennsylvaniaIn Paris, the Treaty of Alliance and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce are signed by the United States and France, signaling official French recognition of the new republicFriedrich Wilhelm von Steuben arrives at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania and begins to train the American troopsHeinrich XI, Prince Reuss of Greiz is elevated to Prince of the Principality of Reuss-Greiz by Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor – it is during Heinrich XI's rule in 1778, that the first appearance of the national colors of modern Germany are present on a flag that closely resembles the modern Flag of Germany, to occur anywhere within what today comprises GermanyBenedict Arnold signs the U.S. Oath of Allegiance at Valley ForgeBattle of MonmouthBattle of WyomingBattle of UshantBattle of Rhode IslandInvasion of DominicaCherry Valley MassacreSpain and France secretly sign the Convention of Aranjuez, with Spain joining an alliance against Great Britain in return for France's pledge to recover all Spanish territory lost to the BritishIn support of the U.S., Spain declares war on BritainKing Charles III of Spain issues a declaration of war against Great BritainUnited States forces, led by General Anthony Wayne, capture Stony Point, New York from British troopsBattle of Flamborough HeadBritish forces under Archibald Campbell take the city of Savannah, GeorgiaBattle of Cape St. VincentThe legislature of Pennsylvania votes, 34 to 21, to approve the Act for the Gradual Emancipation of SlavesGeneral Lafayette embarks on French frigate Hermione at Rochefort, arriving in Boston on April 28, carrying the news that he has secured French men and ships to reinforce the American side in the American Revolutionary WarThe Spanish commander of the Fortress of the Immaculate Conception on the San Juan River in modern-day Nicaragua surrenders it to the British San Juan ExpeditionCharleston, South Carolina is taken by British forcesBattle of WaxhawsBattle of SpringfieldFrench soldiers arrive in Newport, Rhode Island to reinforce the colonists, in the American Revolutionary WarThe first bank created in the United States, the Bank of Pennsylvania, is charteredBattle of CamdenSpanish admiral Luis de Córdova y Córdova captures a British convoy totalling 55 vessels amongst Indiamen, frigates and other cargo ships off Cape St. VincentIn Tappan, New York, British spy John André is hanged by American forcesBattle of Kings MountainThe British San Juan Expedition is forced to withdrawEmperor Kōkaku accedes to the throne of JapanVirginia passes a law ceding its western land claims, paving the way for Maryland to ratify the Articles of ConfederationRichmond, Virginia is burned by British naval forces, led by Benedict ArnoldBattle of JerseyBattle of CowpensThe Articles of Confederation are ratified by Maryland, the 13th and final state to do soThe United States Continental Congress implements the Articles of Confederation, forming its Perpetual Union as the United States in Congress AssembledBattle of Guilford Court HouseCapture of HMS St FerminThe Continental Congress votes a resolution thanking U.S. Captain John Paul Jones for his servicesBattle of Hobkirk's HillGeneral John Campbell, defender of the British colony of West Florida, surrenders the capital at Pensacola to Spanish forces commanded by Bernardo de GalvezSkirmish at the House in the HorseshoeA French fleet under Comte de Grasse enters Chesapeake Bay, cutting British General Charles Cornwallis off from escape by seaBattle of the ChesapeakeBattle of Groton HeightsBattle of Eutaw SpringsSecond Battle of UshantThe first American commercial bank (Bank of North America) opensThe British House of Commons votes against further war in America, paving the way for the Second Rockingham ministry and the Peace of ParisThe bald eagle is chosen as the emblem of the United States of America. On the same day, the Confederation Congress adopts the design for the Great Seal of the United StatesRaid on LunenburgIn Paris, representatives from the United States and the Kingdom of Great Britain sign preliminary peace articles (later formalized in the Treaty of Paris)Action of 12 December 1782At Versailles, Great Britain signs preliminary peace treaties with the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of SpainThe Confederation Congress ratifies two October 8, 1782, treaties signed by the United States with the United NetherlandsGreat Britain acknowledges the independence of the United States of America. At this time, the Spanish government does not grant diplomatic recognitionGreat Britain formally declares that it will cease hostilities with the United StatesThe Crimean Khanate, which has existed since 1441 and is a late remnant of the Mongol Golden Horde, is annexed by the Russian Empire of Catherine the GreatPreliminary articles of peace ending the American Revolutionary War are ratified by the Congress of the Confederation in the United StatesThe Treaty of Georgievsk is signed between Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti, making Georgia a protectorate of RussiaIn Rocky Hill, New Jersey, United States General George Washington gives his Farewell Address to the ArmyThe American Continental Army is disbanded as the first act of business by the Confederation Congress, after Thomas Mifflin is elected the new President to succeed Elias BoudinotThe last British troops leave New York City and George Washington triumphantly returns, three months after the signing of the Treaty of ParisAt Fraunces Tavern in New York City, U.S. General George Washington formally bids his officers farewellGeneral George Washington resigns his commission as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army to the Congress of the Confederation in the Maryland State House in Annapolis, Maryland, and retires to his home at Mount Vernon. Washington's resignation, described by historian Thomas Fleming as "the most important moment in American history,"[7] affirms the United States' commitment to the principle of civilian control of the military, and prompts King George III to call Washington "the greatest character of thThe Ottoman Empire agrees to Russia's annexation of the CrimeaThe Congress of the United States ratifies the Treaty of Paris with Great Britain to end the American Revolutionary War, with the signature of President of Congress Thomas MifflinThe Confederation Congress accepts Virginia's cession of all rights to the Northwest Territory and to KentuckyThe Congress of the Confederation passes the Ordinance of Governance to set guidelines for adding to the original 13 states in the United States of AmericaA treaty is signed in Paris between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, formally ending the Fourth Anglo-Dutch WarThe United States and the Kingdom of France sign a convention for establishing diplomatic relations and "determining the functions and prerogatives of their respective consuls, vice consuls, agents, and commissaries"Cardinal de Rohan is called before the French court to account for his actions, in the Affair of the Diamond NecklaceRussia establishes a colony at Kodiak, AlaskaKettle WarNorth Carolina rescinds its resolution ceding its western territory (modern-day Tennessee) to the United States, after earlier giving Congress two years to accept the termsSir Warren Hastings, who has been governing India on behalf of King George III as the Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William (later British India), resigns. Sir John Macpherson administers British India until General Charles Cornwallis arrives 19 months laterGeneral Henry Knox is appointed as the Confederation Congress's Secretary of War, with added duties as the Secretary of Navy, both functions now of the U.S. Department of DefenseThe Commonwealth of Massachusetts cedes all of its claims to territory west of New York State to the United States Confederation Congress. The area will become the southern portions of Michigan and WisconsinThe Empress Catherine the Great of the Russian Empire issues the Charter to the Towns, providing for "a coherent, unified system of administration" for new governments organized in RussiaThe Northwest Ordinance of 1785, setting the rules for dividing the U.S. Northwest Territory (later Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and Michigan) into townships of 36 square miles apiece, is passed by the Confederation Congress. Walter G. Robillard and Lane J. Bouman, Clark on Surveying and Boundaries (LexisNexis, 1997) The survey system will later be applied to the continent west of the Mississippi RiverThe United States and the Kingdom of Prussia sign a Treaty of Amity and CommerceBenjamin Franklin takes office as the new President of the Supreme Council of Pennsylvania, at the time the equivalent of a republic as one of the 13 independent governments of the United States of America under the Articles of ConfederationJohn Hancock of Massachusetts, the former President of the Continental Congress, is selected as the new President of the Congress of the Confederation, but is unable to take office because of illnessColumbia College (now Columbia University) holds its first graduation, with eight students, including DeWitt ClintonBritish settlements on the Mosquito Coast of Central America are to be evacuated; Spain expands the territory available to the British in Belize on the Yucatán Peninsula, for cutting mahoganyGeneral David Cobb of the Massachusetts militia defeats a body of rebel insurgents at Taunton, Massachusetts in one of the battles of Shays' RebellionThe North Carolina General Assembly authorizes nine commissioners to purchase 100 acres (0.40 km2) of land for the seat of Chatham County. The town is named Pittsborough (later shortened to Pittsboro), for William Pitt the YoungerThe Bank of North America, the central bank of the United States government under the Articles of Confederation, is re-incorporated after its charter had expired in 1786In Britain, Thomas Clarkson and Granville Sharp found the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, with support from John Wesley, Josiah Wedgwood and othersIn Philadelphia, delegates begin to convene the Constitutional Convention, intended to amend the Articles of Confederation (however, a new United States Constitution is eventually produced). George Washington presides over the ConventionThe Congress of the Confederation enacts the Northwest Ordinance, establishing governing rules for the Northwest Territory (the future states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin). It also establishes procedures for the admission of new states, and limits the expansion of slaveryBattle of KinburnTreaty of Versailles (1787) signed, forming an alliance between the Kingdom of France and the Lord Nguyễn Phúc Ánh, future Emperor of VietnamThe first of The Federalist Papers, a series of essays calling for ratification of the U.S. Constitution, is published in The Independent Journal, a New York newspaperGovernor General Lord Dorchester, by proclamation issued from the Chateau St. Louis in Quebec City, divides the British Province of Quebec into five Districts, namely: Gaspé, Nassau, Lunenburg, Mecklenburg, and HesseThe United States Congress of the Confederation passes an act providing a timeline for the voting for the first President under the new U.S. ConstitutionThe Ottoman fortress of Özi falls to the Russians after a prolonged siege, and a murderous storm with a temperature of −23 °C (−9 °F)The United States presidential election, 1788–89 and House of Representatives elections are heldGeorge Washington is unanimously elected the first President of the United States, by the United States Electoral CollegeAt Federal Hall in New York City, the 1st United States Congress meets, and declares the new United States Constitution to be in effect. The bicameral United States Congress replaces the unicameral Congress of the Confederation, as the legislature of the federal government of the United StatesIn France, the Estates-General convenes for the first time in 175 yearsIn France, representatives of the Third Estate at the Estates-General declare themselves the National AssemblyThe Tennis Court Oath is made in VersaillesLouis XVI of France makes a conciliatory speech urging reforms to a joint session, and orders the three estates to meet togetherAt Versailles, the National Assembly reconstitutes itself as the National Constituent Assembly, and begins preparations for what will become the French Constitution of 1791Storming of the BastilleThe first agency of the Federal government of the United States under the new Constitution, the Department of Foreign Affairs [7] (from September 15 renamed the Department of State), is establishedA proposal for a Bill of Rights is adopted by the United States House of RepresentativesThe Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is proclaimed in France, by the Constituent AssemblyBattle of RymnikThe United States Congress proposes a set of 12 amendments to the U.S. constitution, for ratification by the states. [7] Ratification for 10 of these proposals is completed on December 5, 1791, creating the United States Bill of RightsSome 7,000 women march 12 miles (19 km) from Paris to the royal Palace of Versailles, to demand action over high bread pricesBattle of TurnhoutUnited States President George Washington gives the first State of the Union address, in New York CityThe 11 minor states of the Austrian Netherlands, which took part in the Brabant Revolution at the end of 1789, sign a Treaty of Union, creating the United States of Belgium. British Prime Minister William Pitt refuses to recognize the new confederation's independenceIn New York City, the Supreme Court of the United States convenes for the first timeBattle of RevalCompromise of 1790The U.S. House of Representatives votes, 32-29 to approve creating the District of Columbia from portions of Maryland and Virginia for the eventual seat of government and national capitalCitizens of Paris celebrate the unity of the French people and the national reconciliation, in the Fête de la FédérationU.S. President George Washington signs the Residence Act into law, establishing a site along the Potomac River as the District of Columbia and the future site of the capital of the United States. The move comes after the bill is narrowly approved on July 1 by the Senate, 14 to 12, and on July 9 by the House, 32 to 29.[4] At the same time, plans are made to move the national capital from New York to Philadelphia until the Potomac River site can be completedThe Treaty of Värälä ends the Russo-Swedish WarU.S. President George Washington and his wife, Martha Washington, arrive in the new temporary U.S. capital, Philadelphia, and take up residence at the President's House located at 524 Market StreetHoly Roman Empire forces recapture Brussels, bringing an end to the short-lived United States of Belgium and restoring the Austrian NetherlandsDuring Alexander Suvorov's storm of Izmail, 26,000 Turkish soldiers lose their livesThe Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Alexander Suvorov and his Russian armiesHoly Roman troops reenter Liège, heralding the end of the Liège Revolution, and the restoration of its Prince-BishopsThe British Parliament passes the Constitutional Act 1791, splitting the old province of Quebec into Upper and Lower CanadaChamp de Mars massacreDeclaration of PillnitzDeclaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen is written by activist Olympe de Gouges in response to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the CitizenThe capital of the United States, Washington, D.C., is named after the incumbent 1st President George WashingtonLouis XVI of France accepts the final version of the completed constitutionThe law on Jewish emancipation is promulgated in France, the first such legislation in modern EuropeRatification by the states of the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution is completed, creating the United States Bill of Rights. Two additional amendments remain pending, and one of these is finally ratified in 1992, becoming the Twenty-seventh AmendmentThe Pale of Settlement is established by ukase of Catherine the Great, specifying those areas of the Russian Empire in which Jews are permitted permanent residencyThe Treaty of Jassy ends the Russian Empire's war with the Ottoman Empire over CrimeaFrance declares war against Austria, beginning the War of the First CoalitionBattle of DubienkaInsurrection of 10 August 1792Battle of ValmyA Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy by the French Convention goes into effect, and the French First Republic is established, effective the following dayBattle of JemappesAfter being found guilty of treason by the French National Convention, Citizen Capet, Louis XVI of France, is guillotined in ParisThe French First Republic declares war on Great Britain, the Dutch Republic and (on March 7) Spain.[3] During the year, the War of the First Coalition is joined by Portugal, the Holy Roman Empire, Naples and Tuscany in opposition to FranceBattle of NeerwindenBattle of SavenayThe French First Republic abolishes slaveryGeorge Washington holds the first Cabinet meeting, as President of the United StatesThe Committee of Public Safety is established in France, with Georges Danton as its headGeorge Washington signs the Neutrality ProclamationThe last French troops occupying the small Sardinian island of San Pietro surrender to a Spanish fleetRegular troops under François Hanriot demand that the Girondins be expelled from the National ConventionThe Act Against Slavery is passed in Upper CanadaBattle of PeyrestortesBritish troops from Jamaica land on the island of Saint-Domingue to join the Haitian Revolution in opposition to the French Republic and its newly-freed slaves; on 22 September the main French naval base on the island surrenders peacefully to the Royal NavyRaid on GenoaMarie Antoinette, the widowed queen consort of Louis XVI of France, is guillotined in the Place de la Révolution in Paris at the conclusion of a 2-day trial before the Revolutionary TribunalBattle of RacławiceBattle of TourcoingGlorious First of JuneBritish troops capture Port-au-Prince in Haiti from the FrenchBattle of MykonosBattle of FleurusBattle of AldenhovenBattle of MaciejowiceBattle of PragaBattle of Sant Llorenç de la MugaCapture of the Dutch fleet at Den HelderThe Second Treaty of Basel is signed between the French First Republic and Spain, ending the War of the Pyrenees. Spain cedes its half of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola to France13 VendémiaireThe Third Partition of Poland is made, dividing the territory of the Commonwealth of Poland between the Habsburg Monarchy, Prussia and the Russian Empire. On November 25, Stanisław August Poniatowski formally abdicates as last King of PolandThe French Directory takes power; the influence of the Sans-culottes declinesThe Qianlong Emperor of China abdicates at age 84 to make way for his son, the Jiaqing EmperorRatifications of the Jay Treaty between Great Britain and the United States are officially exchanged, bringing it into effectThe French proclaim the Republic of Alba on the occupied territories. Two days later, King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia signs the Armistice of Cherasco, in the headquarters of Napoleon. The fortresses of Coni, Tortoni and Alessandria, with all their guns, are given upNapoleon Bonaparte forms an advanced guard (3,500 infantry and 1,500 cavalry) under General Claude Dallemagne. He sends this force along the south bank of the Po River, to cross it with boats at PiacenzaBattle of LodiNapoleon's troops take MilanThe French-Republican army divisions of the Army of Italy invade the territories of the Serenissima Repubblica di San MarcoNapoleon Bonaparte seizes the Papal States, which become part of the revolutionary Cisalpine Republic. Pope Pius VI signs the Armistice of Bologna, and is forced to pay a contribution (34 million francs)The United States takes possession of Detroit from Great Britain, under the terms of the Jay TreatyBattle of CastiglioneSpain and France form an alliance against Great BritainBattle of BassanoU.S. President George Washington issues his Farewell Address, which warns against partisan politics and foreign entanglements. In addition, he sets a precedent by declining to run for a third termEmpress Catherine the Great signs an agreement with Great Britain, formally joining Russia to the coalitionBattle of EmmendingenFrench forces (9,500 men) under Masséna attack the Austrian army at Fontaniva. After a desperate assault he is outnumbered, and forced to retreat to VeronaBattle of CaldieroField marshal Dagobert von Wurmser surrenders the fortress city to the French; only 16,000 men of the garrison are capable of marching out as prisoners of warBattle of FaenzaBattle of Cape St. VincentInvasion of TrinidadJohn Adams is sworn in as the second President of the United States, with an uneventful transition of power from the administration of George WashingtonBattle of ValvasoneTreaty of LeobenNapoleon Bonaparte conquers Venice, ending the city and Republic of Venice's 1,100 years of independence. The last doge of Venice, Ludovico Manin, steps down. The Venetian Ghetto is thrown openNapoleon Bonaparte decrees the birth of the Cisalpine Republic; he appoints ministers and establishes the first constitutionCoup of 18 FructidorBattle of CamperdownThe Irish Rebellion of 1798 begins when the Irish Militia arrest the leadership of the Society of United Irishmen,[2] a group unique amongst Irish republican and nationalist movements in that it unifies Catholics and Protestants (Anglican, Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist and others) around republican ideals. This month, Lord Castlereagh is appointed Acting Chief Secretary for Ireland and on March 30 martial law is proclaimed here. The first battles in the rebellion are fought on May 24 and it continues thrThe Prussian heir apparent, Frederick William, becomes King of Prussia as Fredrick William IIIFrench troops enter BernFrench forces invade the Papal States and establish the Roman RepublicFrance annexes GenevaNapoleon sets off for Toulon, sailing aboard Vice-Admiral Brueys's flagship L'Orient; his squadron is part of a larger fleet of over 300 vessels, carrying almost 37,000 troopsThe French take MaltaThe first of the four Alien and Sedition Acts, the Naturalization Act of 1798, is signed into law by U.S. President Adams, requiring immigrants to wait 14 years rather than five years to become naturalized citizens of the United States. On June 25, another law is signed authorizing the imprisonment and deportation of any non-citizens deemed to be dangerousCapture of La CroyableBattle of Shubra KhitThe fourth of the Alien and Sedition Acts, the Sedition Act of 1798 is signed into law, making it a federal crime to write, publish, or utter false or malicious statements about the United States governmentBattle of the PyramidsNapoleon occupies CairoBattle of KillalaBattle of Tory IslandThe Russo-Ottoman siege of Corfu ends with the surrender of the French garrison,[1] bringing an end to the first period of French rule in the Ionian IslandsNew York passes a law aimed at gradually abolishing slavery in the stateBattle of Cassano d'AddaBattle of WinterthurAction of 18 June 1799At Aboukir, Egypt, Napoleon defeats 10,000 Ottoman Mamluk troops under Mustafa PashaVlieter incidentBattle of CastricumAction of 16 October 1799Coup of 18 BrumaireThe Parthenopean Republic is established in Naples by French General Jean Étienne Championnet; King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies fleesUSS Constellation vs L'InsurgenteAction of 28 February 1799Battle of WieslochGeorge Washington, first President of the United States, dies at Mount Vernon, Virginia, aged 67Action of 1 January 1800The U.S. Library of Congress is founded in Washington, D.CFrench forces under General Louis-Alexandre Berthier are halted by 400 Austro-Piedmont soldiers, at Fort Bard in the Aosta ValleyNapoleon and his French army (40,000 men)—not including the field artillery and baggage trains—(35,000 light artillery and infantry, 5,000 cavalry) begin crossing the Alps. He selects the shortest route through the Great St Bernard Pass, and invades after five days traversing the northern region of ItalyU.S. President John Adams moves to Washington. Because the President's Mansion is still under construction, President Adams takes up residence at Tunnicliffe's City Hotel near the unfinished U.S. Capitol BuildingThe French army is evacuated from Genoa. Marshal André Masséna is allowed to march out, with all the honours of war. A portion of his force joins General Louis-Gabriel Suchet, and the rest is conveyed in British ships to AntibesBattle of MarengoBattle of HöchstädtThe plot by African-American blacksmith and slave Gabriel Prosser to seize Richmond, Virginia, and guide a slave uprising, is thwarted by a massive downpour on the evening that it is set to begin; two other slaves have revealed Prosser's plans to authorities, who have prepared to follow him to the rendezvous point and arrest the conspirators, so that "neither the geographical extent of the plot nor the number of insurgents in the conspiracy was revealed";[11] eventually, 25 slaves, including Prosser, will bThe Convention of 1800, or Treaty of Mortefontaine, is signed between France and the United States of America, ending the Quasi-WarFrench privateer Robert Surcouf leads the 150-man crew of his corvette Confiance to capture the 40-gun, 437-man British East Indiaman Kent in the Indian OceanU.S. President John Adams becomes the first President of the United States to live in the Executive Mansion (later renamed the White House)The United States Congress holds its first Washington, D.C. sessionBattle of HohenlindenThe Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise fails to kill Napoleon BonaparteToussaint Louverture triumphantly enters Santo Domingo, the capital of the former Spanish colony of Santo Domingo, which has become a colony of Napoleonic FranceThe Treaty of Lunéville ends the War of the Second Coalition between France and Austria. Under the terms of the treaty, Aachen is officially annexed by FranceBattle of AlexandriaBattle of CopenhagenAction of 6 May 1801Toussaint Louverture promulgates a reforming constitution for Santo Domingo, declaring himself emperor for life of the entire island of Hispaniola, and nominally abolishing slaveryAction of 1 August 1801The Treaty of London is signed for preliminary peace between the French First Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandA French expeditionary force (40,000 troops) led by General Charles Leclerc (Bonaparte's brother-in-law) lands in Saint-Domingue, (modern Haiti) to restore colonial rule, where Toussaint Louverture (a black former slave) has proclaimed himself Governor-General for Life, and established control over HispaniolaFrench Army General Charles Leclerc and the first 5,000 of 20,000 troops arrive at Cap-Francois (now Cap-Haïtien), to suppress Toussaint L'Ouverture and the rebellion of the black population in HaitiA general amnesty signed by Napoleon allows all but about 1,000 of the most notorious émigrés of the French Revolution to return to France as part of a conciliatory gesture to make peace with the various factions of the Ancien Régime that ultimately consolidates his own ruleBy the Law of 20 May 1802, Napoleon reinstates slavery in the French colonies, revoking its abolition in the French RevolutionHaitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture is seized by French troops and imprisoned at the Fort de JouxIn a plebiscite, Napoleon Bonaparte is confirmed as the First Consul of FranceFrench Army General Michel Ney enters Switzerland with 40,000 troops, on orders of Napoleon BonaparteEdward Despard and six others are hanged and beheaded for plotting to assassinate King George III of the United Kingdom, and to destroy the Bank of EnglandMarbury v. MadisonThe Louisiana Purchase is made from France by the United StatesNapoleon Bonaparte orders the establishment of five military camps to defend the coast of France, located at Bayonne, Ghent, Saint-Omer, Compiègne, Saint-Malo, and one in the occupied Netherlands, at Utrecht. Each one has 20,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry to defend itBattle of VertièresThe proposed Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, requiring that electoral ballots distinctly list the choice for president and the choice for vice president, is approved by Congress for submission to the states for ratification; passed in the wake of the problems in the 1800 presidential election, the amendment is ratified by 13 of the 17 states and is proclaimed in effect on September 25, 1804The Louisiana Purchase is completed as the French prefect, de Laussat, formally transfers ownership of land between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains to the United States, by way of commissioners William C. C. Claiborne and James Wilkinson.[9] Claiborne is appointed as the area's first American governorHaiti gains independence from France, and becomes the first black republic, having the only successful slave revolt everStephen Decatur leads a raid to burn the pirate-held frigate USS Philadelphia at Tripoli to deny her further use by the captorsThe Napoleonic Code is adopted as French civil lawThe Lewis and Clark Expedition departs from Camp Dubois, and begins their historic journey by traveling up the Missouri RiverNapoleon Bonaparte is proclaimed Emperor of the French by the French SenateThe Twelfth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified by New Hampshire, and arguably becomes effective (subsequently vetoed by the Governor of New Hampshire)In reaction to Napoleon being proclaimed emperor of France, Francis II assumes the title of a hereditary emperor of Austria (as Francis I) in addition to his title as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Tis latter title will become obsolete two years later when the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine instigated by Napoleon signals the end of the Holy Roman EmpireBattle of Cape Santa MariaThe Democratic-Republican-controlled United States Senate begins an impeachment trial against Federalist-partisan Supreme Court of the United States Justice Samuel Chase, on charges of political bias (he is acquitted by the United States Senate of all charges on March 1, 1805)Coronation of Napoleon IRutger Jan Schimmelpenninck is appointed as Grand Pensionary of the Batavian Republic by NapoleonThe First Barbary War ends between Tripoli and the United States of AmericaScouting ahead of the expedition, Meriwether Lewis and four companions sight the Great Falls of the Missouri River, confirming they are heading in the right directionU.S. Army Captain Meriwether Lewis becomes the first white person to reach the Continental Divide of the Americas, crossing to the west at Lemhi PassBattle of ElchingenBattle of TrafalgarBattle of DürensteinBattle of SchöngrabernBattle of AusterlitzThe Peace of Pressburg between France and Austria is signed in the Primate's Palace, Pressbury (modern-day Bratislava)The Dutch commandant of Cape Town surrenders to British forces. On January 10, formal capitulation is signed under the Treaty Tree in Papendorp (modern-day Woodstock)Battle of San DomingoExplorers Lewis and Clark and their Corps of Discovery, having reached the Pacific Ocean after traveling through the Louisiana Purchase, begin their journey homeLouis Bonaparte is appointed as King of Holland by his brother, Emperor Napoleon, replacing the Batavian RepublicBattle of MaidaSixteen German Imperial States leave the Holy Roman Empire and form the Confederation of the Rhine; Liechtenstein is given full sovereignty, leading to the collapse of the Empire after 844 yearsThe Lewis and Clark Expedition reaches St. Louis, Missouri, ending a successful exploration of the Louisiana Territory and the Pacific Northwest. According to one historian, their arrival comes "much to the amazement of residents, who had given the travelers up for deadPrussia issues an ultimatum to Paris, threatening war if France does not halt marching its troops through Prussian territory to reach Austria; the message does not reach Napoleon Bonaparte until October 7, and he responds by attacking PrussiaBattle of SchleizBattle of Jena–AuerstedtFall of BerlinNapoleon declares the Continental Blockade against the British, blocking the import of British manufactured goods to the rest of EuropeThe last major Prussian field force, under Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, surrenders to the French near Lübeck. Frederick William III has by this time fled to RussiaFrench troops enter WarsawBattle of PułtuskBattle of GolyminBattle of MontevideoThe U.S. Congress passes an act to "prohibit the importation of slaves into any port or place within the jurisdiction of the United States ... from any foreign kingdom, place, or country" (to take effect 1 January 1808)The Slave Trade Act becomes law, abolishing the slave trade in the British Empire (slavery itself is abolished in British colonies in 1833)Battle of FriedlandChesapeake–Leopard affairFrance issues the Milan Decree, which confirms the Continental SystemThe United States Congress passes the Embargo ActThe importation of slaves into the United States is banned, as the 1806 Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves takes effect; African slaves continue to be imported into Cuba, and until the island abolishes slavery in 1865, half a million slaves will arrive on the islandFrench troops occupy the Papal StatesThe slave trade is abolished by the United Kingdom in all of its colonies as the Slave Trade Act 1807 takes effect.[4] This year, the British Royal Navy establishes the West Africa Squadron on the coast of West Africa to enforce the abolitionist Blockade of AfricaRussian troops occupy Helsinki and threaten SveaborgRussian troops occupy Tampere in FinlandRussian troops occupy Turku in FinlandDos de MayoThe fortress of Sveaborg is lost by Sweden to RussiaFerdinand is forced to abdicate as King of Spain by Napoleon. This effectively ends the Anglo-Spanish War (1796–1808) as the United Kingdom allies with Spain and Portugal against the French in the Peninsular WarJoseph Bonaparte approves the Bayonne Statute, a royal charter intended as the basis for his rule as King of Spain, during the Peninsular WarBattle of RoliçaBattle of VimeiroBattle of JutasBattle of TudelaBattle of CorunnaBattle of VallsAction of 27 February 1809First Battle of PortoBattle of MedellínBattle of AbensbergBattle of RaszynBattle of Teugen-HausenSecond Battle of PortoNapoleon I of France orders the annexation of the Papal States to the French Empire. When he announces that the Pope's secular power has ended, the Pope excommunicates himAction of 31 May 1809Battle of RaabFrench troops arrest Pope Pius VII, and take him to LiguriaBattle of AlmonacidThe Peace of Hamina is signed between Russia and Sweden. The future Grand Principality of Finland is ceded to Russia by the Treaty of FredrikshamnThe Treaty of Schönbrunn cedes the Illyrian Provinces to FranceAction of 18 November 1809Battle of OcañaThe French Army, under the command of André Masséna, retreats from PortugalMacon's Bill Number 2 becomes law in the United States, intending to motivate Britain and France to stop seizing American vessels during the Napoleonic WarsVenezuela achieves home rule: Vicente Emparán, Governor of the Captaincy General of Venezuela, is removed by the people of Caracas, and Supreme Junta is installed. Venezuela is the first South American state to proclaim independence from SpainNapoleon annexes the Kingdom of HollandRussia acquires Sukhumi through a treaty with the Abkhazian dukes, and declares a protectorate over the whole of AbkhaziaThe United States annexes the Republic of West FloridaBattle of Calderón BridgeBattle of the GeboraBattle of BarrosaBattle of LissaHenri Christophe is proclaimed King Henri I, turning the northern State of Haiti into the Kingdom of HaitiBattle of AlbueraBattle of Las PiedrasVenezuela declares its Independence from the Spanish EmpireManuel Belgrano raises the Flag of Argentina (which he designed) in the city of Rosario, for the first timePrussia and France sign the Treaty of ParisU.S. President James Madison enacts a 90-day embargo on trade with the United KingdomRussian Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov signs the Treaty of Bucharest, ending the Russo-Turkish War (1806–12) and annexing Bessarabia to Imperial RussiaU.S. President James Madison asks the U.S. Congress to declare war on the United KingdomNapoleon's Grande Armée crosses the Neman River, and invades RussiaAmericans invade Canada at Windsor, OntarioBattle of SalamancaTecumseh's Indian force ambushes Thomas Van Horne's 200 Americans at Brownstone Creek, causing them to flee and retreatThe combined English and Portuguese army under the command of Wellington enters Madrid, following the Battle of SalamancaBattle of Fort DearbornAmerican General William Hull surrenders Fort Detroit, without a fight, to the British ArmyUSS Constitution vs HMS GuerriereBattle of BorodinoNapoleon's troops enter Moscow, which is deliberately set on fire by Muscovites, on orders of Fyodor Rostopchin. Later accounts report that France lost 40,000 troops during four days of fire between September 17 and 20, and that 20,000 Russian soldiers were killed in what would be described in 1876 as "the greatest example in history of national self-sacrifice for the destruction of an invaderAmerican naval forces under Lieutenant Jesse Duncan Elliott capture two British warships, HMS Detroit and HMS CaledoniaBattle of Queenston HeightsNapoleon begins his retreat from MoscowMalet Coup of 1812Battle of MaloyaroslavetsBattle of VyazmaThe French invasion of Russia comes to an end as the remnants of the Grande Armée are expelled from RussiaUSS Constitution defeats the British frigate HMS Java, off the coast of BrazilBattle of San LorenzoAction of 7 February 1813Construction begins on Fort Meigs in Ohio, under the command of General William Henry Harrison. Major Amos Stoddard assumes command of its artilleryThe French garrison evacuates Berlin, leaving Russian troops able to reach and take the city without a fightBattle of Rosillo CreekColonel James Ball arrives at Fort Meigs with 200 dragoonsBattle of YorkBattle of LützenIn Canada, American forces capture Fort GeorgeCapture of USS ChesapeakeBattle of Stoney CreekBattle of VitoriaBattle of GroßbeerenBattle of the KatzbachBattle of San MarcialBattle of DennewitzBattle of Lake ErieSecond Battle of KulmBattle of the ThamesBattle of the ChateauguayBattle of Crysler's FarmBritish soldiers burn Buffalo, New YorkThe Royal Prussian Army led by Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher crosses the RhineBattle of PuruaránBattle of HoogstratenFirst Battle of Bar-sur-AubeBattle of BrienneBattle of La RothièreBattle of LesmontBattle of the Mincio RiverBattle of ChampaubertBattle of MontmirailBattle of Château-ThierryBattle of La VictoriaBattle of VauchampsBattle of GarrisBattle of MormantBattle of MontereauBattle of Bar-sur-AubeBattle of OrthezBattle of Saint-JulienBattle of LaubresselBattle of LongwoodsBattle of CraonneA night attack by the British under Sir Thomas Graham on the French fortress of Bergen op Zoom ends in failureBattle of MâconBattle of LimonestBattle of Fère-ChampenoiseBattle of Saint-DizierBattle of Horseshoe BendBattle of ValparaísoBattle of Lacolle MillsBattle of CourtraiTreaty of FontainebleauBattle of BayonneUSS Peacock vs HMS EpervierBattle of Fort OswegoUSS Wasp vs HMS ReindeerCapture of Fort ErieBattle of ChippawaBattle of Rock Island RapidsBattle of CaraboboThe First Treaty of Paris is signed, returning France's borders to their 1792 extent. Napoleon is exiled to Elba on the same dayBattle of Lundy's LaneInvasion of HvalerBattle of LierSiege of FredrikstadBattle of MatrandBattle of LangnesBattle of Kjølberg BridgeBurning of WashingtonBattle of Caulk's FieldSinking of HMS AvonBattle of HampdenBattle of North PointBattle of Cook's MillsAndrew Jackson seizes Pensacola, FloridaThe Treaty of Ghent is signed, formally ending the warBattle of New OrleansBritish troops capture Fort Peter in St. Marys, Georgia, the only battle of the war to take place in the stateCapture of USS PresidentThe War of 1812 between the United States the United Kingdom (including Canada) officially ends, following ratification of the Treaty of Ghent (1814) in Washington, D.C.Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from ElbaNapoleon returns to France from his banishment on ElbaThe Final Act of the Congress of Vienna is signed: A new European political situation is set. The German Confederation and Congress Poland are created, and the neutrality of Switzerland is guaranteed. Also, Luxembourg declares independence from the French EmpireBattle of LignyBattle of Quatre BrasBattle of WaterlooNapoleon abdicates again; Napoleon II (1811–1832), age 4, rules for two weeks (June 22 to July 7)Wellington's advancing Allied Army takes Péronne, Somme on its way to ParisLouis XVIII returns to Paris, and is 'restored' as King of France (he had declared himself king on June 8, 1795, at the death of his nephew, 10-year-old Louis XVII, and had lived in Westphalia, Verona, Russia, and England)Napoleon boards HMS Bellerophon off Rochefort, and surrenders to Captain Frederick Lewis Maitland of the Royal NavyRepresentatives of the United Kingdom, Austria, Russia and Prussia sign a convention at Paris, declaring that Napoleon Bonaparte is "their prisoner" and that "His safe keeping is entrusted to the British GovernmentNapoleon is transferred to HMS Northumberland, to begin his forced and final second exile, on the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic OceanNapoleon begins his exile on Saint Helena in the Atlantic OceanThe Napoleonic Wars come to an end after 12 years, with the British government restoring the status quo of France, prior to when the French Revolution began in 1789The Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland is signed, creating Congress Poland, a constitutional monarchy in personal union with the Russian Empire, under terms agreed at the Congress of ViennaTsar Alexander I of Russia signs an order, expelling the Jesuits from St. Petersburg and MoscowThe Governorate of Estonia of the Russian Empire emancipates its peasants from serfdomThe United Provinces of South America (today Argentina, Uruguay, Bolivia and southern Brazil) declares independence from SpainBombardment of AlgiersBattle of ChacabucoKing Ferdinand VII of Spain, by royal decree, makes the production and sale of tobacco a legal endeavor in Cuba, thus sparking the birth of the Cuban cigar industryEmperor Ninkō accedes to the throne of JapanThe Treaty of Mandeswar brings an end to the Third Anglo-Maratha War, ending the dominance of Marathas, and enhancing the power of the British East India Company, which controls territory occupied by 180 million IndiansThe United States Congress adopts the flag of the United States as having thirteen red and white stripes, and one star for each state (twenty), with additional stars to be added whenever a new state is added to the UnionThe Bank of the United States reverses its policy of expanding credit, and sends notices to its borrowers nationwide demanding immediate repayment of balances due; the defaults during the next six months will trigger the Panic of 1819U.S. President James Monroe convenes a cabinet meeting, to discuss whether General Andrew Jackson's unauthorized invasion and conquest of Spanish Florida should be disavowed by the White House. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams persuades the President that the action is justifiable, in stopping terror caused by the Seminole tribesThe United States House of Representatives agrees to the Tallmadge Amendment, barring slaves from the new state of Missouri (the opening vote in a controversy that leads to the Missouri Compromise)Adams–Onís TreatyThe Governorate of Livonia of the Russian Empire emancipates its peasants from serfdomThe USS Congress, commanded by Captain John D. Henley, becomes the first American warship to visit China, landing at Lintin Island, off of the coast of CantonThe Republic of Gran Colombia is formally established, with Simón Bolívar as its first presidentGeorge IV of the United Kingdom ascends the throne, on the death at Windsor Castle of his father George III (after 59 years on the throne), ending the period known as the British Regency. There will be a gap of 21 years before the title Prince of Wales is next used86 free African American colonists sail from New York City to Freetown, Sierra LeoneKing Ferdinand VII of Spain accepts the new constitution, beginning the Trienio LiberalThe Daoguang Emperor succeeds the throne of the Qing Dynasty in ChinaBattle of CaraboboThe first group of freed slaves from the United States arrive to the west coast of Africa, founding Monrovia on April 25The invading Haitian forces, led by Jean-Pierre Boyer, arrive in Santo Domingo, to overthrow the newly founded Dominican RepublicThe American Colonization Society lands at Cape Mesurado on the West African coast, after purchasing 60 miles (97 km) of coastline. The settlement will soon become Monrovia, as the nation of Liberia is established to fill the ACS mission of freeing black American slaves and sending them "back to Africa"Battle of PichinchaConstantine Kanaris blows up the Ottoman navy's flagship at Chios, killing the Kapudan Pasha Nasuhzade Ali PashaThe Guayaquil ConferenceAction of 9 November 1822The Congress of Central America declares absolute independence from Spain, Mexico and any other foreign nation, including North America, and a republican system of government is establishedThe Battle of TrocaderoCádiz surrenders to the French and Ferdinand VII of Spain is restored to his throne, immediately repealing the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812James Monroe first introduces the Monroe Doctrine in the State of the Union address, declaring that any European attempts to recolonize the Americas would be considered a hostile act towards the United StatesThe British take Rangoon, BurmaDon Agustín de Iturbide, who had formerly been President of Mexico and then proclaimed himself Emperor Agustin the First, until being overthrown on March 19, 1823, is executed by a firing squad in the city of Padilla, five days after returning from exile in EnglandAfter no presidential candidate receives a majority of United States Electoral College votes following the 1824 United States presidential election, the United States House of Representatives elects John Quincy Adams President of the United States in a contingent electionThe Decembrist RevoltThe Treaty of Yandabo ends the First Anglo-Burmese War; Britain gains Assam, Manipur, Rakhine and TanintharyiFreedom's Journal, the first African-American owned and published newspaper in the United States, is founded in New York City by John RusswurmBattle of PhaleronThe Treaty of London between France, Britain, and Russia, demands that the Turks agree to an armistice in GreeceThe Russians under Ivan Paskevich storm Yerevan, ending a millennium of Muslim domination in Eastern ArmeniaBattle of NavarinoDutch naval lieutenant Jan van Speyk blows up his own gunboat in Antwerp rather than strike his colours on the demand of supporters of the Belgian RevolutionThe Battle of Olszynka GrochowskaThe Battle of OstrołękaCoronation of King William IV of the United KingdomThe House of Commons of the United Kingdom passes the Great Reform Bill to expand the franchise, but this is later defeated in the House of LordsIn Southampton County, Virginia, escaped slave Nat Turner is captured and arrested for leading the bloodiest slave rebellion in United States historySlave trading is forbidden in BrazilAbolitionist William Lloyd Garrison founds the New-England Anti-Slavery SocietyThe Christmas Rebellion of slaves is brought to an end in Jamaica, after the island's white planters organize militias and the British Army sends companies of the 84th regiment to enforce martial law. More than 300 of the slave rebels will be publicly hanged for their part in the destructionThe Treaty of London creates an independent Kingdom of Greece. Otto of Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria, is chosen King; thus begins the history of modern GreeceGreece is recognized as a sovereign nation; the Treaty of Constantinople ends the Greek War of Independence in JulyThe Reform Act becomes law in the United Kingdom, expanding the franchiseThe Bad Axe Massacre ends the last major Native American rebellion east of the Mississippi in the United StatesBlack Hawk (Sauk leader) surrenders to the United States authorities, ending the Black Hawk WarPrincipal Chief Levi Colbert (Itawamba Mingo) and other leaders of the Chickasaw Nation of American Indians sign the Treaty of Pontotoc Creek with the United States, ceding their remaining 9,400 square miles of land to the U.S., in return for a promise that they will receive all proceeds of sales of the land by the federal government to private owners, along with expenses for relocation and food and supplies for one year. The area ceded includes the entire northern one-sixth of the state of MississippiU.S. President Andrew Jackson responds to the Nullification Crisis by threatening to send the U.S. Army and Navy into South Carolina if it does not complyReassertion of British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands in the South AtlanticGeneral Antonio López de Santa Anna is elected President of Mexico by the legislatures of 16 of the 18 Mexican states. During his frequent absences from office to fight on the battlefield, Santa Anna turns the duties of government over to his vice president, Valentín Gómez FaríasThe British Slavery Abolition Act 1833, beginning the process of giving slaves in much of the British Empire their freedom, receives royal assent (coming into effect August 1, 1834). A £20 million fund is established to compensate slaveownersThe national anthem of the Russian Empire, God Save the Tsar!, is first performedMexico passes its first "expulsion law", providing for citizens of Spain to be expelled within the next six months, and to remain barred from re-entry until the Kingdom of Spain recognizes Mexico's 1810 declaration of independenceJean Baptiste Gay, vicomte de Martignac succeeds the Comte de Villèle, as Prime Minister of FranceThe Democratic Party of the United States is organizedArthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington succeeds Lord Goderich as Prime Minister of the United KingdomThe first American-Indian newspaper in the United States is published, named "Cherokee Phoenix"Treaty of TurkmenchaySimón Bolívar, President of Colombia (and former President of Venezuela, Peru and Bolivia), departs from the capital at Bogotá, in order to help his ally, General José Antonio Páez, suppress an uprising near the Venezuelan border, but is sidetracked by another rebellion in CartagenaAntonio José de Sucre tries to invade Paraguay, reaching the northern city of Fuerte Olimpo, but the planned invasion is immediately cancelledPresident Simón Bolívar declares war on PeruEmpire of Brazil and United Provinces of the Río de lá Plata(Today Argentina) recognize the independence of Uruguay. Simón Bolívar declares himself dictator of Gran ColombiaSiege of Varna1828 United States presidential electionBattle of TarquiGreece receives autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in the London Protocol, signed by Russia, France and Britain, effectively ending the Greek War of Independence. Greece continues to seek full independence through diplomatic negotiations with the three Great PowersRussian Field-Marshal Hans Karl von Diebitsch launches the Trans-Balkan Offensive, which brings the Russian army within 68 kilometres (42 mi) of IstanbulThe Prince de Polignac succeeds the Vicomte de Martignac as Prime Minister of FranceThe Ottoman Empire signs the Treaty of Adrianople with Russia, thus ending the Russo-Turkish WarAfrican-American abolitionist David Walker publishes his Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World, in Boston, MassachusettsThe London Protocol establishes the full independence and sovereignty of Greece from the Ottoman Empire, as the final result of the Greek War of IndependenceThe United States Congress passes the Indian Removal Act, authorizing the President to negotiate with Native Americans in the United States for their removal from their ancestral homelands. This also has the effect of beginning mass destruction of bison in North AmericaThe army of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands fails to retake Brussels, a National Congress is summoned to draw up a Constitution and a Provisional Government of Belgium is established under Charles Latour RogierThe Independence of Belgium is recognized by the Great PowersWilliam Lloyd Garrison begins publishing The Liberator, an anti-slavery newspaper, in Boston, MassachusettsThe government of Mexico imprisons Stephen F. Austin in Mexico CityThe United States Survey of the Coast is transferred to the Department of the NavyThe Whig Party is officially named, by United States Senator Henry ClayGeneral Theodoros Kolokotronis is sentenced to death for treason, for resisting the rule of Otto of Greece (he is released the following year)The Spanish Inquisition, which began in the 15th century, is suppressed by royal decreeWilliam Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne succeeds Earl Grey as Prime Minister of the United KingdomSlavery is abolished in the British Empire, by the Slavery Abolition Act 1833In the Empire of Brazil, the Additional Act provides for establishment of the Provincial Legislative Assembly, extinction of the State Council, replacement of the Regency Trina, and introduction of a direct and secret ballotThe Poor Law Amendment Act in the United Kingdom states that no able-bodied British man can receive assistance, unless he enters a workhouse (a kind of poorhouse)The Palace of Westminster is destroyed by fire, along with both the House of Commons and the House of Lords (which are not in session) of the British Parliament. An investigation later traces the disaster to an order from the Exchequer to the Board of Works to destroy the tally sticks that had been stored as part of record keeping, the use of the furnaces beneath the House of Lords to carry out the task, and the failure of authorities to stop the work or to fight the fire after smoke had first been detectedWilliam Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne becomes the last Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to be dismissed by the British monarch. King William IV temporarily appoints Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, to form a caretaker governmentSir Robert Peel succeeds The Duke of Wellington as Prime Minister of the United KingdomThe United States public debt contracts to zero, for the only time in historySlavery is abolished in MauritiusThe Academia Mexicana de la Lengua (Mexican Academy of Language) is establishedLord Melbourne succeeds Sir Robert Peel as Prime Minister of the United KingdomWilliam Lloyd Garrison publishes Angelina Grimké's anti-slavery letter in The LiberatorThe Battle of GonzalesThe Battle of ConcepciónThe Army of the Republic of Texas captures San AntonioThe Texas Declaration of Independence is first signed at Goliad, TexasThe Goliad massacreThe Battle of San JacintoForces under Texas General Sam Houston capture Mexican General Antonio López de Santa AnnaQueen Victoria becomes the first reigning British monarch to travel by train, on the Great Western Railway between Slough and London Paddington stationThe Mines Act 1842 becomes law, prohibiting underground work for all women and boys under 10 years old in the United KingdomThe Treaty of Nanking, an unequal treaty between Britain and Qing dynasty China, ends the First Opium War, and establishes Hong Kong as a British colony until 1997The Virginia Minstrels perform the first minstrel show, at the Bowery Amphitheatre in New York CityThe Indian Slavery Act, 1843 removes legal support for slavery within the territories of the East India CompanyIsambard Kingdom Brunel's SS Great Britain is launched from Bristol; it will be the first iron-hulled, propeller-driven ship to cross the Atlantic OceanThe Dominican Republic gains independence from Haiti.A gun on the USS Princeton explodes while the boat is on a Potomac River cruise, killing 2 United States Cabinet members and several othersThe first electrical telegram is sent by Samuel Morse from the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. to the B&O Railroad "outer depot" in Baltimore, saying "What hath God wrought"The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the first ever diplomatic agreement between China and the United StatesThe United States Congress establishes a uniform date for federal elections, which will henceforth be held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in NovemberThe United States Congress approves the annexation of TexasThe Aberdeen Act is passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, empowering the British Royal Navy to search Brazilian ships, as part of the abolition of the slave trade from AfricaA majority of voters in the Republic of Texas approve a proposed constitution, that if accepted by the United States Congress, will make Texas a U.S. stateU.S. President James K. Polk announces to Congress that the Monroe Doctrine should be strictly enforced, and that the United States should aggressively expand into the WestAmerican newspaper editor John L. O'Sullivan claims (in connection with the annexation of the Oregon Country) in The United States Magazine and Democratic Review that the United States should be allowed "the fulfillment of our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions".The United States House of Representatives votes to stop sharing the Oregon Country with the United KingdomBattle of SobraonUnited States president James K. Polk's annexation of the Republic of Texas is finalized by Texas president Anson Jones in a formal ceremony of transfer of sovereignty. The newly formed Texas state government is officially installed in AustinThe Liberty Bell is cracked, while being rung for George Washington's birthdayThe First Anglo-Sikh War ends, with the signing of the Treaty of Lahore.[4] Kashmir is ceded to the British East India Company, and the Koh-i-Noor diamond is surrendered to Queen VictoriaPrince Osahito, fourth son of deceased Emperor Ninkō of Japan, becomes Emperor KōmeiBattle of Palo AltoThe United States declares war on MexicoUnder the leadership of Prime Minister Robert Peel, the House of Commons of the United Kingdom votes to repeal the Corn Laws by passing an Importation Bill, replacing the old colonial mercantile trade system with free trade.[6] On June 25 the Duke of Wellington persuades the House of Lords to pass the Act, which will take full effect from February 1849The California Republic declares independence from MexicoAmerican settlers in Sonoma, California, start a rebellion against Mexico and proclaim the California RepublicThe Oregon Treaty establishes the 49th parallel as the border between the United States and Canada, from the Rocky Mountains to the Strait of Juan de FucaThe British Parliament votes to repeal the Corn Laws, in an attempt to relieve the Irish Famine. This brings about the resignation of Peel, the Prime Minister, and sets Great Britain on a path towards Free TradeBattle of MontereyThe Second Federal Republic of Mexico is establishedElias Howe is awarded the first United States patent for a sewing machine, using a lockstitch designThe Donner Party, a wagon train of 87 settlers traveling to California, is stranded in the Sierra Nevada mountains by the first of several snowstorms. By the time a relief party reaches the starving settlers three months later, only 48 survivors are left, many of whom have survived by cannibalismGreat Britain acquires Labuan from the Sultanate of BruneiIowa is admitted as the 29th U.S. stateSamuel Colt sells his first revolver pistol to the U.S governmentThe Treaty of Cahuenga ends fighting in the Mexican–American War in CaliforniaA rescue effort, called the First Relief, leaves Johnson's Ranch to save the ill-fated Donner Party (California-bound emigrants who became snowbound in the Sierra Nevada earlier this winter; some have resorted to survival cannibalism)The 30th United States Congress is sworn into officeUnited States forces under General Winfield Scott invade Mexico near VeracruzUnited States forces under General Winfield Scott take Veracruz after a siegeIn Philadelphia, the American Medical Association (AMA) is foundedBahrain's ruler Shaikh Mohamed bin Khalifa Al Khalifa, signs a treaty with the British to prevent and combat the slave trade in the Arabian GulfThe first congress of the Communist League is held in LondonThe United States issues its first postage stamps (pictured)U.S. troops of General Winfield Scott begin to advance along the aqueduct around Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco in MexicoBattle of ChurubuscoU.S. general Winfield Scott enters Mexico City, marking the end of organized Mexican resistanceThe Battle of Um Swayya Spring takes place near a spring in Qatar, after a Bahraini force under Shaikh Ali bin Khalifa Deputy Ruler of Bahrain defeats the Al Binali tribe. The chief of the Al Binali, Isa bin Tureef, is slain in battle with over 70 fatalities from his sideBritish Royal Navy steam frigate HMS Avenger (1845) is wrecked on the Sorelle Rocks in the Mediterranean Sea with the loss of 246 lives and only eight survivorsJoseph Jenkins Roberts is sworn in, as the first president of the independent African Republic of LiberiaThe Treaty of Guadalupe HidalgoKarl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish The Communist Manifesto (Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei) in LondonFrançois Guizot, Prime Minister of France, resigns; 52 people from the Paris mob are killed by soldiers guarding public buildingsLouis Philippe I, King of the French, abdicates in favour of his grandson, Prince Philippe, Count of Paris, and flees to England after days of revolution in Paris. The French Second Republic is later proclaimed by Alphonse de Lamartine, in the name of the provisional government elected by the Chamber, under the pressure of the mobLouis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and Robert Baldwin became the first Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada to be democratically elected, under a system of responsible governmentPrince Klemens von Metternich gives up office as State Chancellor and Foreign Minister of the Austrian EmpireThe Boston Public Library is founded by an act of the Great and General Court of MassachusettsThe Republic of San Marco comes into existence in VeniceQueen's College, London, founded, the world's first school to award academic qualifications to young womenThe Illinois and Michigan Canal is completedThe first Hungarian national government is formed, under the leadership of Lajos Batthyány. The April Laws, the first democratic revolutionary laws in Hungary, are promulgated. These laws are the first modern laws in Hungary, which put an end to the feodal privileges of the nobility and serfdom, proclaim the freedom of religion, the freedom of the press, the foundation of the Hungarian National Bank, organises the first democratic election in Hungary based in popular representation, national guard, reunion The second abolition of slavery in France and its colonies initiated by Victor SchœlcherPope Pius IX publishes an allocution announcing his refusal to support Piedmont-Sardinia in its war with Austria, and dispelling hopes that he might serve as ruler of a pan-Italian republic. The allocution, by which Pius is seen to withdraw his moral support for the Italian unification movement, is a key first step in the soon-to-be crushing reaction against the revolutions of 1848Radicals invade the French Chamber of Deputies40,000 Romanians meet at Câmpia Libertății in Blaj, to protest Transylvania becoming a part of HungaryThe first German National Assembly (Nationalversammlung) opens in Frankfurt, GermanyThe Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ending the Mexican–American War, is ratified by the Mexican government (cf. February 2, above)The Austrian army bombards Prague, and crushes a working-class revoltThe Hungarian national revolutionary parliament starts to workThe Young Irelander RebellionAmerican President James K. Polk annexes the Oregon Country, and renames it the Oregon Territory as part of the United StatesThe Independent Republic of Yucatán officially unites with Mexico, in exchange for Mexican help in suppressing a revolt by the indigenous Maya populationThe New York Herald breaks the news to the East Coast of the United States that there is a gold rush in California (although the rush started in January)Louisy Mathieu becomes the first black member to join the French Parliament, as a representative of GuadeloupeThe Croatian army of Josip Jelačić, encouraged in secret by the Habsburg government, crosses the Drava River and attacks Hungary, with the goal of ending the revolution in that countryOne of the successes of the Revolutions of 1848, the Swiss Federal Constitution, patterned on the US Constitution, enters into force, creating a federal republic, and one of the first modern democratic states in EuropeThe Hungarian king and Habsburg emperor Ferdinand V refuses to recognise the Hungarian government, led by Lajos Batthyány. The Batthyány government resigns and the National Defence Committee is formed, which is a temporary crisis government, totally independent from Vienna, under the leadership of Lajos KossuthThe Battle of PákozdGeneral Anton Puchner, commander of the Austrian armies of Transylvania, declares insurrection against Hungary, and, together with the Romanian insurgents led by Avram Iancu, attacks and chases away the Hungarian armed forces occupying Transylvania. During these events (mostly in October 1848 – January 1849, but also between May–July 1849) between 7,500 and 8,500 Hungarian civilians (men, women, and children) are massacred by the Romanian insurgentsRomanian bands massacre 640 Hungarian civilians at the town of Zlatna, TransylvaniaThe Battle of SchwechatVienna is occupied by the imperial forces led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, who crushes the revolution hereA new Constitution of the Netherlands (drafted by Johan Rudolph Thorbecke), severely limiting the power of the monarchy and introducing representative democracy, is proclaimedFrance ratifies a new constitution. The French Second Republic is set up, ending the state of temporary government lasting since the Revolution of 1848The Austrian imperial army, led by Franz Schlik, attacks HungaryPrince Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte is elected first president of the French Second RepublicThe main Austrian imperial forces, led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, cross the Hungarian borderPresident Napoleon III takes his oath of office in front of the French National AssemblySlavery is abolished in Réunion (this day is celebrated every year from 1981)Hungarian forces, led by Józef Bem, enter Kolozsvár (Cluj), after defeating the Austrian armies in northern TransylvaniaThe Battle of MórThe Austrian army, led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, enters in the Hungarian capitals, Buda and Pest. The Hungarian government and parliament flee to DebrecenRomanian armed groups massacre 600 unarmed Hungarian civilians, at NagyenyedBattle of TooeleBattle of NagyszebenA Russian army of 10,000 soldiers enters Transylvania, in order to help the Austrians defeat the Hungarian forces, led by Josef BemThe abolition of the Corn Laws by the United Kingdom's Importation Act 1846 comes fully into effectTreaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed, ending the Mexican–American War (effective on exchange of ratifications, May 30; proclaimed July 4)Battle of VízaknaThe Hungarian revolutionary army, led by Richard Guyon, breaks through the pass of Branyiszkó, defeating the Austrian defendersThe new Roman Republic is proclaimedBattle of PiskiThe Battle of GujratThe Habsburg emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria promulgates at Olomouc the March Constitution of Austria, which abolishes the April Laws promulgated by the Hungarian Batthyány-govern, and degrades Hungary to a simple Austrian provinceBattle of SzolnokThe Hungarian army of Transylvania, under general Josef Bem, defeats the Russian-Austrian army at Nagyszeben, capturing the city which is the headquarters of Austrian general Anton Puchner. Most of Transylvania is liberated from the Austrian rule. The Austrian and the Russian troops flee to WallachiaThe Second Anglo-Sikh War ends, with the United Kingdom annexing the PunjabAfter 10 days, the insurrection in Brescia is ended by Austrian troopsThe Hungarian Revolutionary Army, under the leadership of Arthur Görgey, starts the victorious Spring Campaign, which leads to the liberation of much of Hungary from the Austrian forcesThe German revolutions of 1848–49 end in failure, as King Frederick William IV of Prussia refuses to accept the offer of the Frankfurt National Assembly, to be crowned as German emperorThe Battle of HatvanThe Battle of TápióbicskeThe Battle of IsaszegThe Battle of VácBecause of his series of defeats suffered from the Hungarian army, Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz is released from the supreme command of the Austrian forces in Hungary, and replaced by Ludwig von WeldenThe Hungarian revolutionary parliament in Debrecen declares independence from the Habsburg EmpireThe Battle of Nagysalló96 inmates of the overcrowded Ballinrobe Union Workhouse died over the course of the preceding week from illness and other famine-related conditions, a record highThe Austrian government asks Russian help against the Hungarian Revolution. Tsar Nicholas I of Russia agrees to send troops against HungaryBattle of KomáromGiuseppe Garibaldi enters Rome, to defend it from the French troops of General Charles OudinotA new independent Hungarian government, led by Bertalan Szemere, is formed. The head of state of Hungary becomes Lajos Kossuth, as governor presidentTroops of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies take Palermo, and crush the republican government of SicilyThe Hungarian army, led by Arthur Görgey, captures the Castle of Buda, liberating the Hungarian capital city completely. The leader of the defending Austrian forces, General Heinrich Hentzi, dies because of his injuries. The Hungarian government moves back from Debrecen to BudapestJulius Jacob von Haynau replaces Ludwig von Welden as leader of the Austrian forces in Hungary, because of the failure of the latter to stop the advance of the Hungarian forcesDenmark becomes a constitutional monarchyThe first Russian troops, led by Lieutenant General Fyodor Sergeyevich Panyutin, who come in the aid of the Habsburgs, cross the Hungarian border at Pozsony, in order to crush the Hungarian revolutionThe main Russian forces, led by Ivan Paskevich, cross the Hungarian border, and together with the Austrian troops, led by Julius Jacob von Haynau, start the final attack against the Hungarian Revolution. Now the Hungarian revolutionary troops, numbering 173,000 soldiers, which even before the Russian attack were in inferiority regarding their numbers, and the quality of their weapons and war industry, face a force of 370,000 Austro-Russian forces and other tens of thousands of Croatian, Serbian and RomanianRussian troops, under the command of Alexander von Lüders, break in Transylvania, and together with the Austrian forces, start to operate against the Hungarian troops, led by Józef BemThe Russo-Austrian army, led by Julius Jacob von Haynau, defeats the Hungarians under the command of Arthur Görgey at PeredThe Austrian army, led by Julius Jacob von Haynau, defeats the Hungarians, led by Ernő Poeltenberg, at Győr. The Hungarian army is forced to retreat towards BudapestThe Second Battle of KomáromFrench troops occupy Rome; the Roman Republic surrendersThe Battle of FredericiaThird Battle of KomáromHungarian troops, led by Richard Guyon, defeat the Croatian-Austrian army led by Josip Jelačić at Kishegyes, securing southern Hungary for the revolutionary governmentHungarians, led by Arthur Görgey, and the Russians, led by Ivan Paskevich, battle indecisively at Vác. The Russians are unsuccessful in destroying the Hungarian army, which retreats towards the east.The Hungarian government, led by Bertalan Szemere promulgates the Nationality Law, which gives important rights to the nationalities of Hungary, like the right to use their mother tongue in school, church, army, court and administration. The Romanians are declared a nation, and not a minority, in Transylvania. The Jews receive equality thanks to the Emancipation DecreeThe Battle of SegesvárThe Russian main forces, under Ivan Paskevich, defeat the Hungarian army under József Nagysándor, at Debrecen.The Hungarian defenders of Komárom, led by György Klapka, destroy the besieging Austrian forces, liberating Győr and Székesfehérvár. But this victory comes too late to change the course of military events in the eastern part of the country, where the Hungarian forces are about to crumble under the heavy Austro-Russian pressure.The Battle of SzőregThe Battle of TemesvárLajos Kossuth and the Hungarian Government of Bertalan Szemere resign, and give all powers to the hands of Arthur Görgey. After this Kossuth, the ministries and many military officers leave Hungary, and ask asylum in TurkeyThe main Hungarian army, under the lead of Arthur Görgey, capitulates to the Russian troops, led by Theodor von Rüdiger, at Világos, ending the Hungarian RevolutionVenice (the Republic of San Marco) surrenders to Austrian troops after a 4-month siege.African-American abolitionist Harriet Tubman escapes from slaveryKomárom, the last bastion of the Hungarian Revolution, surrenders to the Austrian forces.The 13 Martyrs of Arad are executed after the Hungarian War of Independence, in repression by the Austrian authorities led by Julius Jacob von Haynau (these martyrs were the generals of the Hungarian revolutionary army, who did not flee from Hungary after the suppression of the Hungarian revolution by the Russo-Austrian forces).Lajos Batthyány, the first Hungarian prime minister, is executed by Austria in Pest.A Russian court sentences Fyodor Dostoyevsky to death, for anti-government activities linked to a radical intellectual group, the Petrashevsky Circle. Facing a firing squad on December 23, the group members are reprieved at the last moment, and exiled to the katorga prison camps in Siberia.Scotland adopts January 1 as New Year's Day instead of March 25The Linköping BloodbathMichael the Brave becomes ruler of Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia, formally uniting the three Danubian Principalities under one Romanian rulerThe Battle of NieuwpoortBattle of SekigaharaThe East India Company is granted a Royal Charter in the Kingdom of England for trade with AsiaThe first expedition of the East India Company sets sail from England for the Spice Islands with John Davis as pilot-majorThe United East India Company is established by the United Provinces States-General in Amsterdam, with the stated intention of capturing the spice trade from the PortugueseEnglish explorer Bartholomew Gosnold, sailing in the Concord, becomes the first European at Cape CodQueen Elizabeth I of England dies at Richmond Palace (having ruled since 1558), and is succeeded by her cousin twice removed, King James VI of Scotland (where he has ruled since 1567), uniting the crowns of Scotland and EnglandTokugawa Ieyasu is granted the title of shōgun from Emperor Go-Yozei, and establishes the Tokugawa shogunate in Edo, Japan. The 265-year-long Edo period beginsThe Nine Years War (Ireland) is ended by the submission of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, to the English Crown, and the signing of the Treaty of MellifontThe funeral of Elizabeth I of England is held in Westminster AbbeySultan Mehmed III of the Ottoman Empire dies, and is succeeded by his son Ahmed IEngland concludes the Treaty of London with Spain, ending the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), an intermittent conflict within the Eighty Years' WarA proclamation declares all people of Ireland to be the direct subjects of the British Crown and not of any local lord or chiefTsar Boris Godunov dies; Feodor II accedes to the Russian throneRussian troops in Moscow imprison Feodor II and his mother, later executing themPretender Dmitriy and his supporters, including troops of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, march to MoscowPretender Dmitriy is officially crowned Tsar Dimitriy Ioannovich of Russia in Moscow by Patriarch IgnatiusSpanish troops under Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquess of Los Balbases, Captain-General of the Army of Flanders (newly appointed a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece), occupy Wachtendonk after a 20-day siegeThe Gunpowder PlotThe trial of Guy Fawkes and other conspirators, for plotting against Parliament and James I of England, beginsThe First Charter of Virginia is adopted, by which King James I of England grants rights to the Virginia Company (comprising the London Company and Plymouth Company) to settle parts of the east coast of North AmericaThe first version of the Union Flag is created,[3] to be worn as a national flag by English and Scottish shipsSupporters of Vasili Shuisky invade the Kremlin, and kill Tsar Dmitry I of RussiaKing Charles IX of Sweden founded the city of Vaasa to the Korsholm Parish in the Coastal OstrobothniaThe Peace of Zsitvatorok is signed, between the Ottoman and Holy Roman Empires. The independence of Transylvania is recognized by both sides, and Austria's annual tribute to the Ottomans is abolishedThe Susan Constant sets out from the River Thames in England leading the Virginia Company's fleet for the foundation of Jamestown, VirginiaBattle of GibraltarEnglish colonists make landfall at Cape Henry, Virginia, later moving up the James RiverJamestown, Virginia, is established as the first permanent English settlement in North America, beginning the American frontierChristopher Newport, George Percy, Gabriel Archer, and others travel six days exploring along the James River up to the falls and Powhatan's villageThe president directs the fort to be strengthened and armed against the many attacks of the natives: "Hereupon the President was contented the Fort should be pallisadoed, the ordinance mounted, his men armed and exercised, for many were the assaults and Ambuscadoes of the Savages ..." [John Smith, Proceedings (Barbour 1964)]200 armed Indians attack the Jamestown settlement, killing two and wounding tenThe Fort is pallisadoed: "we laboured, pallozadoing our fort" [Gabriel Archer (Arber)]The Midland RevoltCaptain John Smith is released from arrest and sworn in as a member of the colony CouncilThe triangular fort is completed and armed: "The fifteenth of June we had built and finished our Fort, which was triangle wise, having three Bulwarkes, at every corner, like a halfe Moone, and foure or five pieces of Artillerie mounted in them. We had made our selves sufficiently strong for these Savages. We had also sowne most of our Corne on two MountainesThe colony bears extreme toil in strengthening the fort [from John Smith, Proceedings (Barbour 1964:210)]The ship Gift of God of the Plymouth Company arrives at the mouth of the modern-day Kennebec River in Maine. English colonists establish Fort St. George, also known as the Popham Colony. The settlement lasts little more than a year, before residents return to England in the first oceangoing ship built in the New World, a 30-ton pinnace called The VirginiaJamestown President Edward Maria Wingfield is deposed, and John Ratcliffe electedCaptain John Smith of the Jamestown Colony is captured by Opchancanough, and then sent to Chief Powhatan for execution; Pocahontas rescues himThe first of the Jamestown supply missions returns to the Colony of Virginia with Christopher Newport commanding the John and Francis and the Phoenix bringing about 100 new settlers to supplement the 38 survivors he finds at JamestownAt Jamestown, Virginia, fire destroys "all the houses in the fort"; the fort is repaired in MarchTreaty of The Hague, a defensive alliance between France and the United Provinces of the Netherlands, signedChristopher Newport again sails for England, carrying Powhatan's tribesman Namontack for a visit to LondonThe Burning of DerryThe settlement of Quebec City is founded by Samuel de ChamplainJohn Smith is elected council president of Jamestown, and begins expanding the fortThe second of the Jamestown supply missions, which set out in July from England, arrives at Jamestown, Virginia, with Christopher Newport commanding the Mary and Margaret carrying 70 settlers, bringing the population back up to 120; the passengers include two women and some skilled artisans, mostly from continental Europe, to develop industriesOne of the world's first newspapers, Avisa Relation oder Zeitung, begins publication in Wolfenbüttel (Holy Roman Empire)English explorer Henry Hudson, in the service of the Dutch East India Company, sets out from Amsterdam in the Halve MaenThe Treaty of AntwerpLondon publisher Thomas Thorpe issues Shake-speares Sonnets, with a dedication to "Mr. W.H.", and the poem A Lover's Complaint appended; it is uncertain whether this publication has Shakespeare's authorityThe Second Virginia Charter is officially ratified; it is intended to replace the council with a governor, who has absolute control in the colonyA hurricane at sea separates the nine London Company's ships (600 more settlers) en route to relieve the Jamestown settlement; one ship sinks, and the Sea Venture is driven ashore at Bermuda on July 25, thus effectively first settling the colonyAt what is now Crown Point, New York, Samuel de Champlain participates in a battle between the Huron and Iroquois, shooting and killing two Iroquois chiefs; this helps set the tone for French–Iroquois relations for the next 100 yearsHenry Hudson is the first European to see Delaware BayHenry Hudson enters New York Bay, aboard the Halve MaenCapt. George Percy replaces Captain John Smith as president of the Council, and Smith returns to EnglandEnglish courtier Thomas Roe sets out on an expedition to The Guianas and Amazon RiverFrançois Ravaillac assassinates Henry IV of France who is succeeded by his 8-year-old son Louis XIIIActing as temporary Governor, Thomas Gates, along with John Rolfe, Captain Ralph Hamor, Sir George Somers, and other survivors from the Sea Venture (wrecked at Bermuda) arrive at Jamestown; they find that 60 have survived the "starving time" (winter), the fort palisades and gates have been torn down, and empty houses have been used for firewood, in fear of attacks by natives outside the fort areaThe temporary Governor, Thomas Gates, issues The Divine, Moral, and Martial LawsRegicide François Ravaillac is executed by being pulled apart by horses in the Place de Grève, ParisTemporary Governor Gates decides to abandon JamestownTemporary Governor Gates' convoy meets the ships of Governor Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr (Delaware) at Mulberry IslandThe convoy of temporary Governor Gates, and the ships of Governor Lord De La Warr, land at JamestownJohn Guy sets sail from Bristol, with 39 other colonists, for NewfoundlandLady Arbella Stuart, a claimant to the throne of England, is imprisoned for clandestinely marrying William Seymour, 2nd Duke of Somerset, another claimant, without royal permission on June 22Henry Hudson sails into what is now known as Hudson Bay, thinking he has made it through the Northwest Passage and reached the Pacific OceanPoland, under the command of Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski, take control of the Kremlin during the Polish–Muscovite WarLouis XIII of France is crownedIn Japan, sixteen-year-old Emperor Go-Mizunoo succeeds Emperor Go-YōzeiEnglish explorer and sea captain Henry Hudson, his teenage son John, and seven crewmen are set adrift in or near Hudson Bay, after a mutiny on his ship Discovery. They are never seen againDeputy Governor Sir Thomas Gates returns to Virginia with 280 people, provisions and cattle on six ships and assumes control, ruling that the fort must be strengthenedGustavus Adolphus succeeds his father Charles IX as King of SwedenAxel Oxenstierna becomes Lord High Chancellor of Sweden. He persuades the Riksdag of the Estates to grant the Swedish nobility the right and privilege to hold all higher offices of governmentMatthias becomes Holy Roman Emperor, upon the death of Rudolf IIFalse Dmitry III is recognised as tsar by the CossacksMatthias, Holy Roman Emperor, is formally electedThe Northamptonshire Witch TrialsTen Pendle witches are hanged, having been found guilty of practising witchcraft in Lancashire, EnglandThe Treaty of Nasuh Pasha is signed, between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid EmpireKing James I of England successfully mediates the Treaty of Knäred between Denmark and SwedenElizabeth, daughter of King James I of England, marries Frederick V, Elector PalatineAn assembly of the Russian Empire elects Mikhail Romanov Tsar of Russia, ending the Time of Troubles. The House of Romanov will remain a ruling dynasty until 1917The first English child is born in Canada at Cuper's Cove, Newfoundland to Nicholas GuySamuel de Champlain becomes the first unofficial Governor of New FranceSamuel Argall captures Algonquian princess Pocahontas in Passapatanzy, Virginia, to ransom her for some English prisoners held by her father, Chief Powhatan. She is brought to Henricus as an hostageFire destroys London's famed Globe Theatre, during a performance of Shakespeare's Henry VIIIThe New River is opened, to supply London with drinking water from HertfordshireHasekura Tsunenaga sets out in the Date Maru with a Japanese diplomatic mission to the Holy See, first traveling to Acapulco in New Spain; this follows soon after an agreement between Tokugawa Ieyasu and the East India Company, permitting English merchants to live and trade in JapanEnglish royal favourite Robert Carr is created 1st Earl of SomersetThe Earl of Somerset marries Frances Howard, following her divorce from Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex; the event is the inspiration for John Donne's EcloguePocahontas marries English colonist John Rolfe in Jamestown, VirginiaThe University of Groningen is established in the Dutch RepublicAdriaen Block and a group of Amsterdam merchants petition the States General of the Northern Netherlands for exclusive trading rights, in the area he explored and named "New Netherland"The Treaty of Xanten ends the War of the Jülich SuccessionHostilities resulting from an attempt by Toyotomi Hideyori to restore Osaka Castle begin. Tokugawa Ieyasu, father of the shōgun, is outraged at this act, and leads three thousand men across the Kizu River, destroying the fort thereThe New Netherland Company is granted a three-year monopoly in North American trade, between the 40th and 45th parallelsJohn Ogilvie, a Jesuit priest, is hanged and drawn at Glasgow Cross in Scotland for refusing to pledge allegiance to King James VI of Scotland; he will be canonised in 1976, becoming the only post-Reformation Scottish saintThe Peace of TyrnauThe first Récollet missionaries arrive at Quebec City, from Rouen, FranceThe Eastern Army of Tokugawa Ieyasu and the Osaka Army of Toyotomi Hideyori clash during the Battle of Dōmyōji and the Battle of TennōjiForces under shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu take Osaka Castle in Japan, beginning a period of peace which lasts nearly 250 years. Bands of Christian samurai support Ieyasu's enemies at the Battle of OsakaThe Peace of Asti is concluded between the Spanish Empire and SavoyIn England, John Winthrop, later governor of the future Massachusetts Bay Colony, marries his second wife (of four), Thomasine Clopton, daughter of William Clopton of Castleins, near Groton, SuffolkKing James I of England attends the masque The Golden Age Restored, a satire by Ben Jonson on fallen court favorite the Earl of Somerset. The king asks for a repeat performance on January 6In the court of James I of England, the king's favorite George Villiers becomes Master of the Horse (encouraging development of the thoroughbred horse); on April 24 he receives the Order of the Garter; and on August 27 is created Viscount Villiers and Baron Waddon, receiving a grant of land valued at £80,000. In 1617, he will be made Earl of Buckingham. After the Earl of Pembroke, he is the second richest nobleman in EnglandEnglish diplomat Sir Thomas Roe presents his credentials to the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, in Ajmer Fort, opening the door to the British presence in India.[2][3] Roe sailed in the Lyon under the command of captain Christopher Newport, best known for his role in the Virginia coloniesAfter overwintering with the Huron Indians, Samuel de Champlain and Recollect Father Joseph Le Caron visit the Petun and Ottawa Indians of the Great Lakes. This is Champlain's last trip in North America before returning to France. Having secured Canada, he helps create French America, New France, or L'AcadieDutch captain Willem Schouten, in the Eendracht, rounds the southern tip of South America, and names it Kaap Hoorn, after his birthplace in HollandJames I of England grants Ben Jonson an annual pension of 100 marks, making him de facto poet laureateIn the aftermath of the 1613–1614 anti-Jewish pogrom called the Fettmilch Uprising in Frankfurt, Germany, mob leader Vincenz Fettmilch is beheaded, but the Jews, who had been expelled from the city on August 23, 1614, following the plundering of the Judengasse, can only return as a result of direct intervention by Holy Roman Emperor Matthias. After long negotiations, the Jews are left without any compensation for their plundered belongingsEnglish Roman Catholic priest, Thomas Atkinson, is hanged, drawn, and quartered at York, at age 70 (he will be beatified by Pope John Paul II on November 22, 1987)Sir Walter Ralegh, English explorer of the New World, is released from prison in the Tower of London, where he has been imprisoned for treason, in order to conduct a second (ill-fated) expedition, in search of El Dorado in South AmericaEnglish explorer William Baffin, as pilot to Robert Bylot on the Discovery, makes a detailed exploration of Baffin Bay, whilst searching for the Northwest Passage. The expedition also discovers Smith Sound, Lancaster Sound and Devon Island, and reaches latitude 77° 45' North, a record which holds for 236 yearsKing James I of England's former favourite, the Earl of Somerset, and his wife Frances, are convicted of the murder of Thomas Overbury in 1613. They are spared death, and are sentenced to imprisonment in the Tower of London (until 1622).[9] Although the King has ordered the investigation of the poet's murder and allowed his former court favorite to be arrested and tried, his court, now under the influence of George Villiers, gains the reputation of being corrupt and vile. The sale of peerages (beginning in The Treaty of Loudun is signed, ending a series of rebellions in FrancePocahontas (now Rebecca) arrives in England, with her husband, John Rolfe,[12] their one-year-old son, Thomas Rolfe, her half-sister Matachanna (alias Cleopatra) and brother-in-law Tomocomo, the shaman also known as Uttamatomakkin (having set out in May). Ten Powhatan Indians are brought by Sir Thomas Dale, the colonial governor, at the request of the Virginia Company, as a fund-raising device. Dale, having been recalled under criticism, writes A True Relation of the State of Virginia, Left by Sir Thomas DaThe death of Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone, in exile in Rome, ends the Flight of the Earls from IrelandThe Tokugawa shogunate (Bakufu) in Japan forbids foreigners other than Chinese from traveling freely, or trading outside of the ports of Nagasaki and HiradoDirk Hartog makes the second recorded landfall by a European on Australian soil, at Dirk Hartog Island, off the Western Australian coast. The pewter Hartog Plate, left to mark the landfall of the Dutch ship Eendracht, is now in the Rijksmuseum in AmsterdamPrince Charles (15-year-old surviving son of James I of England and Anne of Denmark) is invested as Prince of Wales at Whitehall in London, the last such investiture until 1911Bishop Lancelot Andrewes preaches the annual Gunpowder Treason sermon before King James I of England at Whitehall (both were intended victims)Captain William Murray is granted a royal patent, giving him the sole privilege of importing tobacco to Scotland for a period of 21 years. Continuing from the reign of Elizabeth I of England, the creation of grants and patents reaches a new highwater mark from 1614 to 1621, during the reign of James I of England"Father Christmas" is a main character of Christmas, His Masque, written by Ben Jonson and presented at the court of King James I of England. Father Christmas is considered a papist symbol by Puritans, and later banished from England until the English Restoration. The traditional, comical costume for this jolly figure, as well as regional names, indicate that he is descended from the presenter of the medieval Feast of FoolsCaptain Nathaniel Courthope reaches the nutmeg-rich island of Run in the Moluccas, to defend it against the Dutch East India Company. A contract with the inhabitants, accepting James I of England as their sovereign, makes it part of the English colonial empireThe Treaty of Stolbovo ends the Ingrian War between Sweden and Russia. Sweden gains Ingria and KexholmThe town of Uusikaupunki (Swedish: Nystad, lit. "New Town") was founded by King Gustavus Adolphus of SwedenEncouraged by Charles d'Albert, seventeen-year-old Louis XIII, king of France, forces his mother Marie de Medici, who has held de facto power, into retirement and has her favourite, Concino Concini, assassinatedFerdinand II, Archduke of Inner Austria, is elected King of Bohemia. Ferdinand's forceful Catholic counter-reformation causes great unrest, amongst the Protestants and moderates in BohemiaThe Peace of Busza is signed, between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian CommonwealthThe Treaty of Pavia is signed between Spain and Savoy, under which Savoy returns Monferrato to MantuaA naval battle between the Sicilians and Venetians ends inconclusivelyMustafa I succeeds Ahmed I, as Sultan of the Ottoman EmpireOsman II deposes his uncle Mustafa I as Ottoman sultan (until 1622)Spanish-born Jesuit missionary Pedro Páez becomes (probably) the first European to see and describe the source of the Blue Nile in EthiopiaThe Second Defenestration of PragueJoris Veseler prints the first Dutch newspaper Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c. in Amsterdam (approximate date)Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius are imprisoned by Maurice, Prince of OrangeEnglish adventurer, writer and courtier Sir Walter Raleigh is beheaded at the Palace of Westminster, for allegedly conspiring treasonably against James I of England in 1603, following pressure from the Spanish government, over his attack on their settlement on the Orinoco, on his last (1617–18) voyageRussia and Poland sign the Truce of DeulinoJames I of England's Banqueting House, Whitehall in London is destroyed by fire.Inigo Jones is commissioned to design a replacementMatthias, Holy Roman Emperor dies, leaving the Holy Roman Empire without an official leader, to deal with the Bohemian RevoltThe Synod of Dort has its final meetingDutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague, after having been convicted of treasonJan Pieterszoon Coen, Governor General of the Dutch East Indies, conquers Jayakarta, and renames it BataviaBattle of SablatIn Jamestown, Virginia, the first English-speaking representative assembly in the Americas, the Virginia General Assembly (later named House of Burgesses), convenes for the first timeA group "twenty and odd" enslaved Africans onboard the privateer ship White Lion are landed (the first in the state of Virginia) at Point Comfort in colonial VirginiaBattle of WisternitzThe Treaty of Angoulême ends the civil war between Louis XIII of France and his mother, Marie de' MediciFrederick V of the Palatinate is elected King of Bohemia by the states of the Bohemian ConfederacyFerdinand II, Archduke of Austria and King of Bohemia, is elected Holy Roman Emperor unanimously by the prince-electorsThe Treaty of Munich is signed by Ferdinand II and Maximilian I, Elector of BavariaWilliam Parker School, Hastings, England, is founded by the will of Reverend William ParkerThirty-eight colonists from England disembark in Berkeley Hundred, Virginia from the Margaret of Bristol and give thanks to God (considered by some to be the first Thanksgiving in the Americas)Prince Bethlen Gabor signs a peace treaty with Ferdinand II, Holy Roman EmperorUnder the terms of the Treaty of Ulm, the Protestant Union declares neutrality and ceases to support Frederick V of BohemiaCaptain Andrew Shilling, on behalf of the English Honourable East India Company, lays claim to Table Bay in AfricaThe armed merchant ship Mayflower embarks about 65 emigrants for New England at or near her home port of Rotherhithe on the Thames east of London; about July 29 (July 19 OS) she anchors in Southampton WaterThe ship Speedwell departs Delfshaven with English separatist Puritans from Leiden bound to rendezvous with the Mayflower; on August 5 (July 26 OS) she anchors in Southampton WaterMayflower and Speedwell depart together from Southampton,[2] but are forced to put back into Dartmouth, Devon, for repairs to a leak in the latter ship on August 22 or 23 (August 12 or 13 OS)Mayflower and Speedwell depart together from Dartmouth; they are well out into the Atlantic when the Speedwell is again found to be leakingMayflower and Speedwell return again to England, anchoring at Plymouth; the latter ship is given up as a participant in the voyage and on September 12 (September 2 OS) departs for London with most of her passengers and stores having been transferred to the MayflowerMayflower departs from Plymouth in England on her third attempt to cross the Atlantic.[6] The Pilgrims on board comprise 41 "saints" (English separatists largely from Holland), 40 "strangers" (largely secular planters from London), 23 servants and hired workers, together with c. 30 crewThe Great Patent is granted to Plymouth ColonyBattle of White MountainThe Mayflower arrives inside the tip of Cape Cod (named from the Concord voyage of 1602), at what becomes known as Provincetown Harbor, with the Pilgrims and Planters; 41 Plymouth Colony settlers sign the Mayflower Compact, the first governing document of the colony, on board the shipThe Wedding of Gustav II Adolf and Maria Eleonora takes placeWilliam Bradford and the Mayflower Pilgrims land on what becomes known as Plymouth Rock, in Plymouth, MassachusettsMyles Standish is appointed as the first commander of Plymouth ColonySamoset, a Mohegan, visits the settlers of Plymouth Colony and greets them: "Welcome, Englishmen! My name is SamosetThe Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony sign a peace treaty with Massasoit of the WampanoagsKing Philip IV of Spain begins his 44-year ruleThe Plymouth, Massachusetts colonists create the first treaty with native AmericansThe Mayflower sets sail from Plymouth, on a return trip to EnglandThe Protestant Union is formally dissolvedThe Dutch West India Company is foundedOld Town Square executionBattle of Neu TitscheinThe Treaty of Khotyn is signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ending the First Polish-Ottoman WarThe ship Fortune arrives at Plymouth Colony, with 35 more settlersThe Peace of Nikolsburg is signed between Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and Gabor Bethlen, Prince of Transylvania. Bethlen agrees to renounce his claims to Hungary. In return Bethlen receives several counties and lands along the eastern border of the Holy Roman Empire, and Moravia is granted religious freedomThe Holy Roman Empire and Transylvania sign the Peace of NikolsburgKing James I of England dissolves the English ParliamentJamestown massacreBattle of MingolsheimBattle of WimpfenThe Eendracht, a VOC ship and the second recorded European ship to make landfall on Australian soil, is wrecked off the western coast of Ambon Island, Dutch East IndiesOttoman Sultan Osman II is strangled by rebelling Janissaries, who revolted when they heard rumours that Osman II was planning to move against themThe English ship Tryall, which left Plymouth, England for Batavia (now Jakarta), wrecks on the Tryal Rocks, nine months later (the wreck is discovered in 1969)Battle of HöchstAfter Mansfeld fails to relieve the siege of Heidelberg, Frederick V of the Palatinate cancels Mansfeld's contract and disbands his army. The unemployed army of Mansfeld and Christian the Younger of Brunswick is subsequently hired by the DutchWhile on their way to relieve the Siege of Bergen-op-Zoom in the Netherlands, the army of Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick is blocked by a Spanish army, led by Gonzalo de Córdoba. In the Battle of Fleurus, Cordoba manages to fight off the Protestant assault. The next day, Cordoba surprises the retreating Protestant army with his cavalry, resulting in the destruction of most of the Protestant armyDuke Maximilian I of Bavaria becomes Elector of the Electorate of the PalatinateThe first American temperance law is enacted, in VirginiaPremière of Pedro Calderón de la Barca's first play, Amor, honor y poder, at the Court of Habsburg SpainBattle of StadtlohnFire at Plymouth Colony destroys several buildingsAfter 90 years of Ottoman occupation, the Safavid Empire recaptures BaghdadCapture of BahiaA contingent of 5,000 Chinese troops and 50 warships under the command of Admiral Yu Zigao and General Wang Mengxiong attacks the Dutch fortress at the island of Magong, the largest of the Penghu islands under the command of Martinus Sonck. Outnumbered, the Dutch surrender in five days.The Dutch East India Company agrees to Chinese demands to withdraw its operations from the Penghu islands, and relocates its trading post to Fort Zeelandia and the Dutch-controlled island of Formosa, now Tainan on TaiwanAction of 3 October 1624Denmark's first postal service is launched by order of King Christian IVBattle of BlavetCharles Stuart (Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland) succeeds to the throne on the death of his father, King James I of EnglandStadtholder Maurice of Nassau of the Dutch Republic dies, and is succeeded by his younger brother, Frederick HenrySpanish troops under Ambrogio Spinola conquer Breda, after a yearlong siegeKing Charles I of England marries Catholic princess Henrietta Maria of France and Navarre, at CanterburyThe English Parliament refuses to vote Charles I the right to collect customs duties for his entire reign, restricting him to one year insteadThe Treaty of Southampton makes an alliance between England and the Dutch Republic, against SpainA total of 16 rabbis (including Isaiah Horowitz) are imprisoned in JerusalemAfter several skirmishes in the preceding days, troops under the Marquis of Toiras successfully recapture the island of Ré, forcing the Duke of Soubise to flee to England, and ending the second Huguenot rebellionBattle of ElminaThe Netherlands and England sign the Treaty of The Hague, a military peace treaty for providing economical aid to King Christian IV of Denmark, during his military campaigns in GermanyBattle of WallhofPeter Minuit sails from Texel Island for America's New Netherland colony, with two ships of Dutch emigrantsKing Charles I of England is crowned, but without his wife, Henrietta Maria, who declines to participate in a non-Catholic ceremonyThe Huguenot rebels and the French government sign the Treaty of Paris, ending the second Huguenot rebellionBattle of Dessau BridgePeter Minuit becomes director-general of New Netherland, for the Dutch West India CompanyPeter Minuit buys Manhattan from a Native American tribe (Lenape or Shinnecock) for trade goods, valued at 60 guilders ($24.00)King Charles I of England dissolves the English ParliamentErnst Casimir of Nassau-Dietz retakes Oldenzaal, forcing Spain to withdraw from OverijsselBattle of LutterThe ship Arms of Amsterdam arrives in Europe from New Netherland (left September 23) with the news: "They have purchased the Island Manhattes [Manhattan] from the Indians for the value of 60 guildersFerdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and Transylvanian monarch Bethlen Gabor sign the Peace of PressburgEngland lands the first European settlers on BarbadosHinchingbrooke House is sold by Sir Oliver Cromwell, to Sidney MontaguThe English, under the Duke of Buckingham, invade Ré Island in support of the Huguenots in La Rochelle; the invasion failsBogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania, signs the Capitulation of Franzburg, in which Pomerania is forced to pay for the Imperial army that Wallenstein sent to occupy it. Nonetheless, despite the treaty, Pomerania is devastated by the Imperial troopsBattle of OliwaShah Jahan is crowned as ruler of the Mughal Empire, in AgraWrits issued in February, by King Charles I, require every county in England (not just seaport towns) to pay ship tax by this dateOliver Cromwell makes his first appearance in the English Parliament, as Member for HuntingdonKing Charles I reconvenes the English Parliament, and accepts the Petition of Right as a concession to gain his subsidiesWith the help of Danish and Swedish reinforcements, Stralsund is able to resist Wallenstein's siege until the landing of a Danish army, led by Christian IV of Denmark, forces Wallenstein to raise the siege, and move his army to confront the new threatThe Swedish 64-gun sailing ship Vasa sinks on her maiden voyage, in Stockholm HarborGeorge Villiers, the first Duke of Buckingham, is assassinated by John FeltonBattle of WolgastPuritans settle Salem, which will later become part of Massachusetts Bay ColonyAbaza Mehmed Pasha surrenders to Ottoman forces, ending the Abaza rebellionMassachusetts Bay Colony is granted a Royal Charter, and the county is the first to be created in the United States. The area covers almost all of the present-day stateFerdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor issues the Edict of Restitution, ordering all Catholic properties lost to Protestantism since 1552 to be restored. The Edict further provides that Catholics and Lutherans (but not Calvinists, Hussites or members of other sects) are to be allowed to practice their faithCharles I of England dissolves Parliament, starting the Eleven Years' TyrannyChristian IV of Denmark and Albrecht von Wallenstein sign the Treaty of Lübeck, ending Denmark's involvement in the Thirty Years' War.Prince Frederick of Denmark, the Lutheran administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Verden, is expelled by the Catholic League as a result of the Edict of Restitution. He is replaced by the staunch catholic Francis of WartenbergThe Dutch East India Company ship Batavia is wrecked on a reef near Beacon Island, off Western Australia, on her maiden voyage to the Indies. Following mutiny among the survivors, two exiled murderers become the first Europeans to settle in Australia. Their subsequent fate is unknownThe Dutch States-General ratifies the Dutch West India Company's Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions, making it more attractive to invest in the colony of New Netherland in North AmericaLouis XIII of France signs in his camp at Lédignan the Peace of Alès, ending the Huguenot rebellions. The Huguenots are allowed religious freedom, but lose their political, territorial and military rightsThe Spanish garrison of Wesel is surprised by a small Dutch army, and the city is taken by the Dutch Republic. As Wesel functioned as the principal supply base of Hendrik van den Bergh's army, the loss of supply forces him to retreat to the Spanish Netherlands, leaving him unable to intervene in the ongoing siege of 's-HertogenboschSurrender of MontaubanAs a result of the Cambridge Agreement, the Massachusetts Bay Colony becomes a self-governing entityA Spanish expedition, led by Fadrique de Toledo, wipes out the English colony on St. KittsAfter a five-month-long siege, 's-Hertogenbosch surrenders to Frederick Henry. As a result of the capture of this key fortress, Spain's situation along the Spanish–Dutch border worsens greatlySweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth sign the Truce of Altmark, ending the war in highly favourable terms for SwedenEmperor Go-Mizunoo of Japan abdicates the throne in favour of his daughter, who becomes Empress MeishōNative American Quadequine introduces popcorn to English colonistsA fleet sent by the Dutch West India Company captures Recife from the Portuguese, establishing Dutch Brazil.Winthrop Fleet – The ship Arbella and three others set sail from the Solent in England, with 400 passengers under the leadership of John Winthrop, headed for the Massachusetts Bay Colony in America; seven more, with another 300 aboard, follow in the next few weeksSwedish warships depart from Stockholm, Sweden for Central EuropeMassachusetts Bay Colony founded, John Winthrop governorPassengers of the Arbella, including Anne Bradstreet, America's first poet of significance, finally set foot in the New World at Salem, MassachusettsGovernor John Winthrop passed a resolution declaring "that Trimontaine" on Shawmut peninsula shall be called Boston from now onThe Success, last ship of the Winthrop Fleet, lands safely at Salem harbor, Massachusetts Bay ColonySwedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War begins when King Gustav Adolf of Sweden, leading an army of 13,000 on the Protestant side, makes landfall at Peenemünde, PomeraniaStettin is taken by Swedish forcesJohn Winthrop helps in founding a church in Massachusetts, which will later become known as First Church in Bostonthe Treaty of Stettin is signed by Sweden and the Duchy of Pomerania, forming a close alliance between them, as well as giving Sweden full military control over PomeraniaThe settlement of Boston, Massachusetts Bay Colony is foundedSweden and France sign the Treaty of Bärwalde, a military alliance in which France provides funds for the Swedish army invading northern GermanyThe Reval Gymnasium is founded in Tallinn, Estonia, by Swedish king Gustavus II AdolphusA fire breaks out in Westminster Hall, but is put out before it can cause serious destructionThe Battle of Frankfurt an der OderIn Dorchester, Massachusetts, John Winthrop takes the oath of office, and becomes the first Governor of MassachusettsWilliam Claiborne sails from England to establish a trading post on Kent Island, the first English settlement in MarylandBavaria and France sign the Treaty of Fontainebleau, forming a secret alliance; however, this does not last longSack of BaltimoreThe city of Würzburg is taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, putting an end to the Würzburg witch trials, but not before an estimated 900 people from the city and its environs have been burned at the stake for witchcraftBattle of WerbenAs a result of Tilly's invasion, John George, Elector of Saxony, who has until now stayed neutral, allies with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, in order to drive the Imperial army out of SaxonyBattle of AbrolhosBattle of BreitenfeldA Saxon army takes over PragueA volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius at Pompeii occurs, for the first time in several centuriesGustavus II Adolphus of Sweden takes the city of Mainz, without any resistanceBattle of BambergThe Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye is signed, returning Quebec to French control, after the English had seized it in 1629Battle of RainMunich, capital of Bavaria, is captured by the Swedish armyCharles I of England issues a charter for the colony of Maryland (named in honor of Henrietta Maria), under the control of Lord BaltimoreTwo ships, Saint Jean (250 tons) and L'Esperance-en-Dieu, set sail from La Rochelle in France, bound for Acadia in North AmericaThree hundred colonists for New France depart DieppeA Dutch army, led by Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, captures the city of Maastricht after a two-month siegeBattle of CastelnaudaryHenri II de Montmorency, is executed for his participation in the rebellion of Gaston, Duke of Orléans, against French king Louis XIIIWladyslaw IV Waza is elected king of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, after Sigismund III Vasa's deathBattle of LützenIndians wipe out a new Dutch settlement of Swanadael in New NetherlandGalileo Galilei arrives in Rome for his trial before the InquisitionSamuel de Champlain reclaims his role as commander of New France, on behalf of Cardinal RichelieuGalileo Galilei is convicted of heresy by the Roman Catholic ChurchCharles I is crowned King of Scots at St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh, according to Anglican rite in his first visit to Scotland since early childhood, although he has been Scottish monarch since 1625The Roman Catholic Church forces Galileo Galilei to recant his heliocentric view of the Solar System. According to legend, he claims Eppur si muoveThe Dutch East India Company fleet, led by Hans Putmans, attacks by surprise its ally Zheng Zhilong's base, near XiamenThe Battle of OldendorfEntry of King Louis XIII of France into Nancy marking the occupation of the Duchy of Lorraine by FranceA group from the Plymouth Colony settles in Windsor, Connecticut, making it the first settlement in the stateSiege of Rheinfelden of 1633Leonard Calvert arrives in Maryland, with Jesuit missionaries Andrew White, John Altham Gravenor, and Thomas Gervase, establishing St. Mary's as the fourth permanent settlement in British North AmericaThe Treaty of Polyanovka is signed between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia, concluding the Smolensk WarThe city of Trois-Rivières is founded in New France (the modern-day Canadian province of Quebec)Urbain Grandier, accused of wizardry, is burned alive in Loudun, FranceThe Irish House of Commons passes an Act for the Punishment of the Vice of BuggeryThe Académie française in Paris is formally constituted, as the national academy for the preservation of the French languageThe Peace of Prague is signed, which ends the German civil war aspect of the conflictThe Royal Mail service is made available to the public, by Charles I of EnglandThe Great Colonial Hurricane strikes Narragansett Bay as a possible Category 3 hurricane, killing over 46 peopleThe Treaty of Sztumska Wieś is signed, between Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian CommonwealthRhode Island founder Roger Williams is banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony as a religious dissident, after speaking out against punishments for religious offenses, and giving away Native American landKing Christian of Denmark gives an order, that all beggars that are able to work must be sent to Brinholmen, to build ships or to work as galley rowersA "great charter" to the University of Oxford establishes the Oxford University Press, as the second of the privileged presses in EnglandThe nine-month Siege of Schenkenschans ends, when forces of the Dutch Republic recapture the strategically important fort from the SpanishWilliam Pynchon and his men establish the settlement of Springfield, Massachusetts Bay Colony (they will deed the land later that year, on July 15th)The Spanish besiege Corbie, FranceThe covenant of the Town of Dedham, Massachusetts Bay Colony is first signedA vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony establishes New College (Harvard University), as the first college founded in North AmericaBattle of WittstockThe Massachusetts Bay Colony organizes three militia regiments to defend the colony against the Pequot Indians. This organization is recognized today as the founding of the United States National GuardFerdinand III becomes Holy Roman EmperorBattle off Lizard PointPlymouth Colony grants the "tenn menn of Saugust" a new settlement on Cape Cod, later named Sandwich, MassachusettsKing Charles I of England issues a proclamation, attempting to stem emigration to the North American coloniesThe first English venture to China is attempted by Captain John Weddell, who sails into port in Macau and Canton during the late Ming Dynasty, with six ships. The voyages are for trade, which is dominated here by the Portuguese (at this time combined with the power of Spain). He brings 38,421 pairs of eyeglasses, perhaps the first recorded European-made eyeglasses to enter ChinaAfter a court battle, King Charles I of England hands over title to the North American colony of Massachusetts to Sir Ferdinando Gorges, one of the founders of Plymouth Council for New EnglandEnglish Royal Navy first-rate ship of the line HMS Sovereign of the Seas is launched at Woolwich Dockyard at a cost of £65,586, adorned from stern to bow with gilded carvings, after a design by Anthony van DyckThe Treaty of Hamburg is signed by France and SwedenAnne Hutchinson is banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for heresy, and goes to Rhode IslandSettlers from Sweden arrive on the ships Kalmar Nyckel and Fogel Grip, to establish the settlement of New Sweden in Delaware, beginning the Swedish colonization of the AmericasJohn Wheelwright is banished from Boston, and founds Exeter, New HampshireShogunate forces defeat the last remnants of the Shimabara Rebellion, in the fortress of HaraPatriarch Cyril of Constantinople is deposed for high treason, and strangled and thrown into the sea by Janissaries, on Ottoman Sultan Murad IV's commandCardinal Mazarin becomes the first adviser to French potentate Richelieu, on the death of Leclerc du TremblayCapture of Baghdad by the Ottomans under Sultan Murad IVConnecticut's first constitution, the Fundamental Orders, is adoptedThe early settlement of Taunton, Massachusetts, is incorporated as a townBattle of ChemnitzThe Treaty of Berwick is signed between Charles I and the ScotsThe British East India Company buys a strip of land from King Peda Venkata Raya of the Vijayanagara Empire for the construction of Fort St. George, the first settlement of British India, so founding modern-day Chennai, capital city of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu (celebrated as Madras Day)Battle of the DownsEnglish astronomer Jeremiah Horrocks makes the first successful prediction and observation of a transit of VenusIbrahim I (1640–1648) succeeds Murad IV (1623–1640) as Sultan of the Ottoman EmpireThe Short Parliament assembles, as King Charles I of England attempts to fund the second of the Bishops' WarsThe Short Parliament is dissolvedJohn Punch, a servant of Virginia planter Hugh Gwyn, is sentenced to a life of servitude after attempting to escape, making him the "first official slave in the English colonies"Forty-one Spanish delegates to Japan at Nagasaki are beheadedThe Treaty of Ripon is signed, restoring peace between the Scottish Covenanters and Charles I of EnglandThe English Long Parliament is summoned;[5] it will not be dissolved for 20 yearsA revolution organized by the nobility and bourgeoisie causes John IV of Portugal to be acclaimed as king, thus ending 60 years of personal union of the crowns of Portugal and Spain, and the rule of the House of Habsburg (also called the Philippine Dynasty). The Spanish Habsburgs do not recognize Portugal's new dynasty, the House of Braganza, until the end of the Portuguese Restoration War in 1668Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg begins to ruleKing Charles I of England gives his assent to the Triennial Act, reluctantly committing himself to parliamentary sessions of at least fifty days, every three yearsThe Norwegian city of Kristiansand is founded by King Christian IV of Denmark-NorwayIn England, the Long Parliament abolishes the Court of Star ChamberPortugal and the Dutch Republic sign a Treaty of Offensive and Defensive Alliance at The Hague. The treaty is not respected by both parties, and as a consequence has no effect in the Portuguese colonies (Brazil and Angola) that are under Dutch ruleThe Treaty of London between England and Scotland, ending the Bishops' Wars, is signedCharles I of England flees London for the northThe Irish rebel Sir Felim O'Neill of Kinard issues the Proclamation of DungannonBattle of Cape St. VincentThe Long Parliament of England passes the Grand Remonstrance, part of a series of legislation designed to contain Charles I's absolutist tendenciesCharles I attempts to arrest six leading members of the Long Parliament, but they escapeThe citizens of Galway seize an English naval ship, close the town gates, and declare support for Confederate IrelandGeorge Spencer is executed by the New Haven Colony, for alleged bestialityHonours granted by Charles I, from this date onward, are retrospectively annulled by ParliamentVille-Marie (later Montreal) is founded as a permanent settlementLord Forbes relieves Forthill, and besieges GalwayKing Charles I raises the royal battle standard over Nottingham Castle, so declaring war on his own ParliamentLord Forbes raises his unsuccessful siege of GalwayThomas Granger is executed by hanging at Plymouth, Massachusetts, for confessing to numerous acts of bestialityBattle of EdgehillBattle of Turnham GreenAbel Tasman becomes the first European to discover the island Van Diemen's Land (later renamed Tasmania)Abel Tasman is the first recorded European to sight New ZealandAbel Tasman sights the island of TongaAbel Tasman sights the Fiji IslandsFirst Battle of MiddlewichBattle of New RossFrancisco de Lucena, former Portuguese Secretary of State, is beheaded after being convicted of treasonLouis XIV succeeds his father Louis XIII as King of France at age 4. His rule will last until his death at age 77 in 1715, a total of 72 years, which will be the longest reign of any European monarch in recorded historyBattle of RocroiThe New England Confederation is formed as a military allianceThe Dutch fleet (led by Hendrik Brouwer) is spotted off Carelmapu in Chile, soon afterwards landing nearby and plundering the fort and villageBattle of Adwalton MoorBattle of LansdowneBattle of Roundway DownA Dutch fleet establishes a new colony in the ruins of Valdivia in southern ChileFirst Battle of NewburyThe Shunzhi Emperor of China is crowned, aged 5, 17 days after the death of his father, having been chosen to succeed by the Deliberative Council of Princes and MinistersThe Dutch end their occupation of Valdivia in ChileEmpress Meishō abdicates and Emperor Go-Kōmyō accedes to the throne of JapanBattle of AltonChristmas Island in the Indian Ocean is sighted and named by Captain William Mynors of the British East India Company ship Royal MaryThe failed Dutch expedition arrives back at Recife in Dutch BrazilThe Royalist Oxford Parliament is first assembled by King Charles I of EnglandBattle of NantwichThe first livestock branding law in America is passed in ConnecticutIn England, Roger Williams is granted an official grant for his Rhode Island Colony, allowing the establishment of a general assemblyA popular Chinese rebellion led by Li Zicheng sacks Beijing, prompting Chongzhen, the last emperor of the Ming Dynasty, to commit suicideMing general Wu Sangui forms an alliance with the invading Manchus, and opens the gates of the Great Wall of China at Shanhaiguan Pass, letting the Manchus through, towards the capital BeijingBattle of MontijoBattle of Shanhai PassLi Zicheng proclaims himself emperor of ChinaThe invading Qing army, with the help of Ming general Wu Sangui, captures Beijing, China. This marks the beginning of Manchu rule over China properBattle of Marston MoorBattle of TippermuirThe Jews of Mogilev, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, are attacked during TashlikhThe Shunzhi Emperor, the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, is enthroned in Beijing after the collapse of the Ming dynasty as the first Qing emperor to rule over ChinaBattle of JüterbogAs Christina comes of age, she is made ruling queen of SwedenThe Long Parliament adopts the Directory for Public Worship in England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland, replacing the Book of Common Prayer (1559). Holy Days (other than Sundays) are not to be observedArchbishop of Canterbury William Laud is executed for treason on Tower Hill, LondonFairfax is appointed Commander-in-ChiefArmistice talks open at UxbridgeBattle of InverlochyThe New Model Army is officially foundedPrince Rupert leaves Oxford for BristolBattle of JankauThe House of Lords passes the Self-denying Ordinance, requiring members of the Parliament of England to resign commissions in the armed servicesOne hundred and fifty Irish soldiers bound for service with King Charles I of England are captured at sea by Parliamentarians and killed at Pembroke in WalesBattle of HerbsthausenBattle of AuldearnPrince Rupert's army sacks LeicesterOliver Cromwell is confirmed as the Lieutenant-General of the CavalryBattle of NasebyThe Royalists lose CarlisleBattle of LangportQing Dynasty regent Dorgon issues an edict ordering all Han Chinese men to shave their forehead, and braid the rest of their hair into a queue, identical to those of the ManchusTsar Alexei Mikhailovich of Russia comes to the throneScottish Covenanters abandon the Siege of Hereford and retreat northwardsPrince Rupert surrenders BristolBattle of PhiliphaughBattle of Rowton HeathJeanne Mance founds the Hôtel-Dieu de Montréal, the first hospital in North AmericaRe-fortification of Bourne Castle in Lincolnshire against a threatened Royalist attack beginsThe Royalist stronghold of Hereford is seized in a swift attack by Parliamentary forces under John BirchBattle of TorringtonRoger Scott is tried in Massachusetts for sleeping in churchThe future Charles II of England escapes from Cornwall into exile across the English ChannelJoseph Jenkes obtains the first colonial machine patent, in MassachusettsKing Charles I of England surrenders his forces to a Scottish army at Southwell, NottinghamshireAmerican colonial poet Anne Bradstreet becomes a founding mother of Andover Parish (modern-day North Andover), MassachusettsHabsburg Spain and the Dutch Republic sign a temporary cease-fireThird Siege of Oxford concludes with signing of the surrender of the Royalist garrison at Oxford to General Thomas Fairfax's Parliamentary New Model Army; on the 24th of June the main force marches out, ending the First English Civil WarLightning strikes the gunpowder tower of the castle of Bredevoort in the Netherlands, causing an explosion that destroys parts of the castle and the town, killing Lord Haersolte of Bredevoort and his family, as well as others. Only one son, Anthonie, who is not home that day, survivesCommissioners of the Parliament of England and Scottish Covenanters meeting in Newcastle upon Tyne set out the Heads of Proposals ("Newcastle Propositions") demanding that King Charles I gives up control of the army and place restrictions on Catholics, as the basis for a constitutional settlementRaglan Castle in Wales surrenders to General Fairfax after a 2-month siege; it is later destroyedThe new Orange College of Breda opens at Breda in the Dutch RepublicFrance takes Dunkirk from the Spanish Netherlands for the first timeThe first Protestant church assembly for natives (the Waban) is held in MassachusettsMassachusetts Bay Colony enacts the death penalty for denying Biblical inspirationCountess Louise Henriette of Nassau marries Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, on her 19th birthday at The HagueThe Covenanters hand over King Charles I of England to the ParliamentariansThe Westminster Assembly begins debating the biblical proof texts, to support the new Confession of FaithCitizens of Dublin declare their support for Rinuccini, and refuse to support the army of the Marquis of OrmondBavaria, Cologne, France and Sweden sign the Truce of UlmIn England, a letter from the Agitators of the New Model Army, protesting delay of pay, is read in the House of CommonsThe Marquis of Argyll and David Leslie join forces to defeat Alasdair MacColla, at Rhunahoarine Point in Kintyre. MacColla flees to Ireland; his followers are massacredMasaniello launches rebellion in Naples against Spanish ruleBattle of Dungan's HillBattle of TrieblBattle of KnocknanaussHenry of Guise lands in Naples, to become the leader of the Neapolitan RepublicKing Charles of England promises a church reform. This agreement leads to the Second English Civil WarEngland's Long Parliament passes the Vote of No Addresses, breaking off negotiations with King Charles I, and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil WarThe Dutch and the Spanish sign the Peace of Münster, ending the Eighty Years' War. The Spanish Empire recognizes the Dutch Republic of United Netherlands as a sovereign state (governed by the House of Orange-Nassau and the States General), which was previously a province of the Spanish Empire (ratified May 15)The Roundheads defeat the Cavaliers at the Battle of Maidstone in the Second English Civil WarMehmed IV (1648–1687) succeeds Ibrahim I (1640–1648), as Ottoman EmperorBattle of LensBattle of StirlingSigning of the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück conclude the Peace of Westphalia, ending the Thirty Years' War. Rulers of the Imperial States can personally convert to Protestant, Catholic or Calvinist. Ecclesiastical property is restored to the status of 1624, with the minorities of each of the three recognized faiths granted toleration of worship, and there is general recognition of exclusive sovereignty, including that of the Dutch Republic and Switzerland.France and the Netherlands agree to divide the Caribbean island of Saint Martin between themPride's PurgeThe Rump Parliament passes an ordinance to set up a High Court of Justice, to try Charles I for high treasonCharles I of England goes on trial, for treason and other "high crimes"King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland is found guilty of high treason in a public session. He is beheaded three days later, outside the Banqueting Hall in the Palace of Whitehall, LondonThe Execution of Charles ICharles, Prince of Wales becomes King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland. At the time, none of the three kingdoms recognize him as rulerIn Edinburgh, Scotland claimant King Charles II of England is declared King in his absence. Scotland is the first of the three Kingdoms to recognize his claim to the throneThe rebel Frondeurs and the French government sign the Peace of RueilAn over 1,000 strong war party of Haudenosaunee invade and burn the Huron mission villages of St. Ignace and St. Louis in present-day Simcoe County, Ontario, killing about 300 peopleThe House of Commons of England passes an act abolishing the House of Lords, declaring that it is "useless and dangerous to the people of England"The Maryland Toleration Act is passed in the American colony, allowing all freedom of worshipAn act declaring England to be a Commonwealth is passed by the Rump ParliamentRussian Tsar Alexis throws English merchants out of MoscowDubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh completes Book VIII of Leabhar na nGenealach, in Galway, within days of an outbreak of the plagueTreaty of Zboriv was signed during the period of Tach V'TatOliver Cromwell lands in Dublin, to begin the Cromwellian conquest of IrelandLast of the Swedish troops vacate PragueWilliam III of Orange becomes Prince of the House of Orange at the moment of his birth, succeeding his father, who had died a few days earlier. He does not become stadtholder, so the United Provinces becomes a true republicAnne Greene is hanged at Oxford Castle in England for infanticide, having concealed an illegitimate stillbirth. The following day she revives in the dissection room and, being pardoned, lives until 1659Thomas Cooper, former Usher of Gresham's School, England, is hanged as a Royalist rebelCharles II is crowned King of Scots at Scone (his first crowning)The Capture of the galleon Lion CouronnéBattle of InverkeithingBattle of WorcesterCastle Cornet in Guernsey, the last stronghold which had supported the King in the Third English Civil War, surrendersBattle of CarbisdaleClaimant King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland arrives in Scotland (at Garmouth), the only one of the three kingdoms that has accepted him as rulerColonel George Monck forms Monck's Regiment of Foot, forerunner of the Coldstream GuardsBattle of DunbarMichiel de Ruyter marries the widow Anna van Gelder and plans retirement, but months later becomes a vice-commodore in the First Anglo-Dutch WarDutch sailor Jan van Riebeeck establishes a resupply camp for the Dutch East India Company at the Cape of Good Hope in what is now South Africa, thus founding Cape TownRhode Island passes the first law in North America making slavery illegalBattle of DoverGeorge Fox preaches to a large crowd on Firbank Fell in England, leading to the establishment of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers)Battle of PlymouthBattle of the Kentish KnockBattle of DungenessNew Amsterdam (later renamed New York City) is incorporatedBattle of LeghornOliver Cromwell expels the Rump Parliament in EnglandFerdinand IV is elected King of the RomansThe Instrument of Government in England becomes Britain's first written constitution, under which Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland,[2][3] being advised by a remodelled English Council of State. This is the start of The First Protectorate, bringing an end to the first period of republican government in the country, the Commonwealth of EnglandIn India, Jaswant Singh of Marwar (in what is now the state of Rajasthan) is elevated to the title of Maharaja by Emperor Shah JahanSpanish troops led by Don Gabriel de Rojas y Figueroa successfully attack the Fort de Rocher, a pirate-controlled base on the Caribbean island of TortugaThe Treaty of Pereyaslav is concluded in the city of Pereyaslav, during the meeting between the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host and Tsar Alexey I of Russia, following the end to the Khmelnytsky Uprising in Ukraine, which had started in 1648 and had resulted in the massacre of many thousands of JewsThe Treaty of Westminster, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War, is signedA commercial treaty between England and Sweden is signedOliver Cromwell creates a union between England and Scotland, with Scottish representation in the Parliament of EnglandOtto von Guericke demonstrates the power of atmospheric pressure and the effectiveness of his vacuum pump, using the Magdeburg hemispheres, before Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, and the Imperial Diet in RegensburgLouis XIV of France is crowned at ReimsCharles X Gustav succeeds his cousin Christina on the Swedish throne. After her abdication on the same day, Christina, now the former reigning queen of a Protestant nation, secretly converts to CatholicismPeter Vowell and John Gerard are executed in London for plotting to assassinate Oliver CromwellThe Jewish arrival in New AmsterdamIn England, the First Protectorate Parliament assemblesOliver Cromwell orders the exclusion of 120 members of Parliament who are hostile to himThe Delft Explosion, in the arsenal, devastates the city in the Netherlands, killing more than 100, among whom is Carel Fabritius (32), the most promising student of RembrandtFerdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria, is crowned. His absolutist style of leadership becomes a benchmark for the rest of GermanyFrench mathematician, scientist and religious philosopher Blaise Pascal experiences an intense mystical vision that marks him for lifeEmperor Go-Sai ascends to the throne of JapanDutch Grand Pensionary advisor Johan de Witt marries Wendela BickerJohn Casor becomes the first legally recognized slave, as a result of a civil case in what will be the United StatesPope Alexander VII (born Fabio Chigi) succeeds Pope Innocent X, as the 237th popeThe Piedmontese EasterThe Dutch West India Company denies Peter Stuyvesant's request to exclude Jews from New Amsterdam (Manhattan)Admiral Blake severely damages the arsenal of the Bey of TunisThe Amsterdam Town Hall (now the Royal Palace) is inauguratedThe Jews in New Amsterdam petition for a separate Jewish cemeteryThe Netherlands and Brandenburg sign a military treatyDutch troops capture Fort Assahudi SeramLord Protector Oliver Cromwell divides England into 11 districts, under major-generalsNew Amsterdam and Peter Stuyvesant bar colonial Jews from military serviceSwedish King Karl X Gustav occupies Warsaw (Poland)Peter Stuyvesant recaptures Dutch Ft. Casimir, and defeats the New Sweden (Delaware) colonyThe Jews of Lublin are massacredSwedish King Karl X Gustav occupies Kraków (Poland)England and France sign military and economic treatiesEnglish Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell announces measures against the Laudian party, which was enforced starting on January 1The Whitehall Conference ends with the determination that there was no law preventing Jews from re-entering England after the Edict of Expulsion of 1290At daybreak, English Army Colonel George Monck, with two brigades of troops from his Scottish occupational force, fords the River Tweed at Coldstream in Scotland to cross the border into England (at Northumberland, with a mission of advancing toward London to end military rule of England by General John Lambert and to accomplish the English Restoration, the return of the monarchy to England. By the end of the day, he and his soldiers have gone 15 miles through knee-deep snow to Wooler while the advance guarBy the end of the day, he and his soldiers have gone 15 miles through knee-deep snow to Wooler while the advance guard of cavalry had covered 50 miles to reach MorpethSamuel Pepys, a 36-year-old member of parliament, begins keeping a diary that later provides a detailed insight into daily life and events in 17th century England. He continues until May 31, 1669, when worsening eyesight leads him to quit. .[4] Pepys starts with a preliminary note, "Blessed be God, at the end of the last year I was in very good health, without any sense of my old pain but upon taking of cold. I lived in Axe-yard, having my wife and servant Jane, and no more in family than us three.The Treaty of Königsberg is signed, establishing an alliance between Charles X Gustav of Sweden and Frederick William, Elector of BrandenburgThe first Jewish doctor in the Thirteen Colonies of America, Jacob Lumbrozo, arrives in MarylandBattle of GołąbLondon's Lord Mayor Christopher Packe suggests to Oliver Cromwell, the Lord Protector and chief executive of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, that the monarchy should be restored with Cromwell as its King. Cromwell declines to become King Oliver, but his right to name his successor becomes effective on May 25, 1657 with the commencement of the Humble Petition and AdviceA rebellion of Turkish soldiers, leading to the "Çınar incident", takes place after a palace guard for Ottoman Sultan Mehmet IV turns away a representative group who had come for payment for their services in during the war in Crete. The rebellion ends with the mass killing 30 men identified by the rebels as being responsible for the non-paymentFyodor Baykov, the Russian Empire's first envoy to China, is admitted to the Forbidden City within Beijing, after being sent by Tsar Alexis to negotiate a trade agreement with the Emperor ShunziThe "Çınar incident", named for the Turkish word for the sycamore tree takes place after Ottoman Sultan Mehmet IV declines the request of soldiers to have 30 named government officials put to death. When Mehmet agrees only to dismiss the people from office, the rebels seek out the men on the list and publicly hang most of them from the cinar treesZurnazen Mustafa Pasha is appointed as the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire after persuading Mehmet IV to rescind the February 28 selection of Gazi Hüseyin Pasha. Zurnazen Mustafa's rule lasts only four hours and he is sent into exile the same dayThe First War of Villmergen in the Confederation of Switzerland ends with a peace agreement, mediated by France and the Duchy of Savoy, between the Protestant and Roman Catholic cantonsBattle of JarosławJohn II Casimir Vasa, King of Poland, crowns the Black Madonna of Częstochowa as Queen and Protector of Poland in the cathedral of Lwów, after the miraculous saving of the Jasna Góra Monastery during the Deluge, an event which changed the course of the Second Northern War. The King swears a vow, the Lwów Oath, pledging to protect Poland's people from being conquered againThe Treaty of Brussels is signed, creating an alliance between Philip IV of Spain and the exiled Royalists of the British Isles, led by Charles IIThe Dutch East India Company ship Vergulde Draeck, with 193 crew aboard and a valuable cargo of is wrecked off Ledge Point, Western Australia, with the loss of 118 members. Another 75 make it to shore, with limited provisions. The ship had been bound from the Cape of Good Hope to Batavia in the Dutch East Indies (now Jakarta in Indonesia)The Dutch capture the city of Colombo, Sri Lanka, marking the start of Netherlands colonial rule of Dutch CeylonAfter a 41-day voyage, the seven-member team dispatched from the Vergulde Draeck reaches Batavia and alerts Dutch East India Company officials that the ship was wrecked on April 28. Two rescue ships, the Goede Hoop and the Witte Valck are sent to rescue the men marooned in Western Australia. By the time the Goede Hoop arrives, the crew find no sign of the wreckage of the Vergulde DraeckPoland's capital, Warsaw, is recaptured by Poland's John II Casimir Vasa 11 months after the capital had fallen on July 25, 1655 to SwedenThird Battle of the DardanellesThe Treaty of Marienburg is signed by representatives of Sweden and of Brandenburg and Prussia to create a military alliance during the Second Northern War. King Karl X Gustav signs for Sweden and the Elector Friedrich Wilhelm signs for Brandenburg and PrussiaBattle of WarsawStorm of KokenhusenThe Treaty of Butre is signed in West Africa by representatives of the Dutch West India Company and of the Ahanta Kingdom and allows the Netherlands to have a protectorate over the Dutch Gold Coast. The area is now part of the Republic of GhanaKöprülü Mehmed Pasha becomes Grand Vizier of the Ottoman EmpireThe Truce of Vilna is signed between, Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In addition to agreeing to a temporary ceasefire in their ongoing war, Tsar Alexis of Russia agrees to help defend the commonwealth against Sweden's invasion in return for Tsar Alexis being named heir to the thrones of Poland and Lithuania by King John II Casimir VasaThe Treaty of Labiau is signed, between Charles X Gustav of Sweden and Frederick William, Elector of BrandenburgA treaty of alliance is signed between the Holy Roman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian CommonwealthThe Treaty of Radnot is signed between Sweden, the Electorate of Brandenburg, Transylvania (now Romania), and two rebels groups within Poland on how to divide the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the event of a victory in the Second Northern WarEnglish Quaker James Nayler is convicted of blasphemy but spared the death penaltyKing Frederick III of Denmark and Norway decrees that loan repayments and payments of interest to lenders will be made on two specific days, May 29 and June 11, each one nicknamed the Fandens fødselsdag or "Devil's Birthday"The pendulum clock is invented by Christiaan Huygens, so accurate that it only loses 10 seconds per day. Huygens will mention the date in a letter to Ismail Boulliau a year laterMiles Sindercombe and his group of disaffected Levellers are betrayed, in their attempt to assassinate Oliver Cromwell, by blowing up the Palace of Whitehall in London, and arrestedOliver Cromwell gives Antonio Fernandez Carvajal the assurance of the right of Jews to remain in EnglandIn England, the Humble Petition and Advice offers Lord Protector Cromwell the crownThe Great Fire of Meireki in Edo, Japan, destroys most of the city and damages Edo Castle, killing an estimated 100,000 peopleBy the Treaty of Paris, France and England form an alliance against Spain;[4] England will receive DunkirkThe Jews of New Amsterdam (later New York) are granted freedom of religion, as full citizensLord Protector Cromwell confirms his refusal of the crown of England, preferring the title "Lord Protector"The first eleven Quaker settlers arrive in New Amsterdam (later New York), and are allowed to practice their faithFollowing his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to Oliver Cromwell, English army leader John Lambert is ordered to resign his commissionsThe ship Les Armes d'Amsterdam arrives at Quebec, New France. Among the passengers is Michel Mathieu Brunet dit Lestang (1638–1708), colonist, explorer and co-discoverer of what is today Green Bay, WisconsinBrandenburg and Poland sign the Treaty of WehlauWilliam III, Prince of Orange is no longer stadtholder of OverijsselFrench troops occupy MardyckBrandenburg and Poland sign the Treaty of BrombergChristina, former Queen of Sweden, has Gian Rinaldo Monaldeschi killed in her presence, at the Palace of FontainebleauEdward Sexby, who had plotted against Oliver Cromwell, dies in the Tower of LondonSwedish troops of Charles X Gustav of Sweden cross The Great Belt in Denmark, over frozen seaThe peace between Sweden and Denmark is concluded in Roskilde by the Treaty of Roskilde, under which Denmark is forced to cede significant territory. This led to Sweden reaching its territorial height during its time as a great powerPope Alexander VII appoints François de Laval vicar apostolic of New FranceBattle of the DunesPrince Leopold of the House of Habsburg, son of the late Ferdinand III, is elected as the new Holy Roman EmperorThe coronation of Leopold I takes place in FrankfurtThe League of the Rhine (Rheinische Allianz) is formed by 50 German princes whose cities are on the Rhine riverOliver Cromwell dies, and his son Richard assumes his father's former position as Lord Protector of England, Scotland and IrelandBattle of VilanovaThe Netherlands enters the Dano-Swedish War to come to the rescue of Denmark, sending a 45-ship fleet from VlieThe 45-ship fleet of the Netherlands arrives at Denmark and begins its counterattack on Sweden's army and navy with three squadronsThe Battle of the SoundThe elaborate funeral of the late Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell (who had died on September 3 and was buried at Westminster Abbey two weeks later) is carried out in London. A little more than two years later (in January 1661), Cromwell's body will be disinterred and the head severed and placed on a spikeRepresentatives of the Russian Empire and the Swedish Empire sign the Treaty of Valiesar at the Valiesar Estate near Narva, now part of Estonia. In return for ceasing hostilities between the two empires in the Second Northern War, Russia is allowed to keep captured territories in Livonia (now part of Latvia) for a term of three yearsSiege of KoldingThe Siege of Toruń ends almost six months after it started, with Poland recapturing the city from SwedenBattle of the Lines of ElvasThe third and final session of the Parliament of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland is opened by Lord Protector Richard Cromwell, with Chaloner Chute as the Speaker of the House of Commons, with 567 members. "Cromwell's Other House", which replaced the House of Lords during the last years of the Protectorate, opens on the same day, with Richard Cromwell as its speakerBattle of CopenhagenIn exile in the Netherlands while plotting the restoration of the monarchy to England, Scotland and Ireland, Charles, son of the late King Charles I appoints seven royalists (including six from the "Sealed Knot" group to a "Great Trust and Commission" to make plans for a post-restoration government. The Great Trust is led by Charles's trusted advisor, Edward HydeSir Lislebone Long is elected as the Speaker of the House of Commons by the Third Protectorate Parliament after Chaloner Chute becomes seriously ill. Long serves only six days before dying on March 16. Chute remains Speaker but dies on April 14 and is replaced by Thomas BampfieldThe Danish Africa Company (Dansk afrikanske kompagni) is chartered to Hendrik Carloff for the purpose of capturing Africa slaves from the area around Denmark's colony on the Danish Gold Coast for use in the West IndiesUnder pressure from the English Army in London, which has assembled troops outside of Westminster, Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland, dissolves the Third Protectorate Parliament, the last for the CommonwealthEnglish Army General Hezekiah Haynes, joined by officers Charles Fleetwood, John Lambert, James Berry, Robert Lilburne, Thomas Kelsey, William Goffe and William Packer, presents the manifesto A Declaration of the Officers of the Army, advocating that Lord Protector Cromwell step down after restoring the "Rump Parliament" to administer England. Cromwell restores the parliament rule the next day and decides to step downThe Kingdom of France, the Commonwealth of England and the Dutch Republic sign the Concert of The HagueThe Netherlands, England, and France sign the Treaty of The HagueBattle of KonotopPrincess Henriette Catherine of Nassau marries John George II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, in GroningenAs Booth's Uprising spreads to Liverpool, Thomas Myddelton, Randolph Egerton and fellow royalists take control of the city of Wrexham in Wales and proclaim Charles II to be KingTwo English warships block the entrance to the River Dee to prevent supplies from reaching Booth's rebels in Chester, while Major General John Lambert of the English Army advances into Cheshire at NantwichThe Battle of Winnington BridgePeter Stuyvesant of New Netherland forbids tennis playing during religious services, marking the first mention of tennis in what will become the United StatesThe English Rump Parliament dismisses John Lambert, and other generalsGeneral-major John Lambert drives out the English Rump-governmentThe Treaty of the Pyrenees is signed by representatives of King Louis XIV of France and King Philip IV of Spain. Spain agrees to French acquisition of the counties of Roussillon and Upper Cerdanya (Principality of Catalonia) and most of Artois, and formally end their 24-year-long Franco-Spanish WarDutch forces under Michiel de Ruyter free the Danish city of Nyborg from Swedish conquest that had taken place earlier in the yearGeneral George Monck demands free parliamentary elections in Scotland and resolves to overthrow the military government that has ruled the British Isles since 1648The Long Parliament reforms occur in WestminsterAt daybreak, English Army Colonel George Monck, with two brigades of troops from his Scottish occupational force, fords the River Tweed at Coldstream in Scotland to cross the border into England (at Northumberland, with a mission of advancing toward London to end military rule of England by General John Lambert and to accomplish the English Restoration, the return of the monarchy to England. By the end of the day, he and his soldiers have gone 15 miles through knee-deep snow to Wooler while the advance guarAt the same time, rebels within the English Army under the command of Colonel Thomas Fairfax take control of York and await the arrival of Monck's troopsThe Rump Parliament passes a resolution requesting Colonel Monck to come to London "as speedily as he could", followed by a resolution of approval on January 12 and a vote of thanks and annual payment of 1,000 pounds sterling for his lifetime on January 16Colonel Monck and Colonel Fairfax rendezvous at York and then prepare to proceed southward toward London. gathering deserters from Lambert's army along the wayWith 4,000 infantry and 1,800 cavalry ("an army sufficient to overawe, without exciting suspicion"),[6] Colonel Monck marches southward toward Nottingham, with a final destination of London. Colonel Thomas Morgan is dispatched back to Scotland with two regiments of cavalry to reinforce troops thereThe Rump Parliament confirms the promotion of Colonel George Monck to the rank of General and he receives the commission of rank while at St AlbansGeneral George Monck, at the head of his troops, enters London on horseback, accompanied by his principal officers and the commissioners of the Rump Parliament. Bells ring as they pass but the crowds in the streets are unenthusiastic and the troops are "astonished at meeting with so different a reception to that which they had received elsewhere during their march."Charles XI becomes king of Sweden at the age of five, upon the death of his father, Charles X GustavusThe Rump Parliament, under pressure from General Monck, votes to call back all of the surviving members of the group of 231 MPs who had been removed from the House of Commons in 1648 so that the Long Parliament can be reassembled long enough for a full Parliament to approve elections for a new legislative bodyGeneral John Lambert, who had attempted to stop the Restoration, is arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London. He escapes on April 9 but is recaptured on April 24. Though spared the death penalty for treason in 1662, he remains incarcerated on the island of Guernsey for the rest of his life until his death at age 75 on March 1, 1694The Long Parliament, after having been reassembled for the first time in more than 11 years, votes for its own dissolution and calls for new elections for what will become the Convention Parliament to make the return from republic to monarchyThe Merces baronets, a British nobility title is createdhe Declaration of Breda, signed by Charles Stuart, son of the late King Charles I of England, promises amnesty, freedom of conscience, and army back pay, in return for support for the English Restoration.[7] The Declaration is read to the new parliament on May 1The Convention Parliament, a new House of Commons for England, freely elected with no requirement for candidates to swear loyalty to the Commonwealth of England, assembles in London to work out the restoration of the monarchyThe Convention Parliament votes to welcome the Declaration of Breda and unanimously approves a resolution for England declaring that "according to the ancient and fundamental laws of this kingdom, the Government is, and ought to be, by Kings, Lords and CommonsIn the Treaty of Oliva, peace is made between the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Habsburgs and Brandenburg-PrussiaIn exile in the Netherlands, Prince Charles Stuart receives word that the Parliament of England has declared his elevation to the throne as King Charles II of EnglandThe Irish Parliament declares Charles to be King of IrelandJohn Thurloe is arrested for high treason, for his support of Oliver Cromwell's regimeWith the way cleared for his return to England, King Charles II ends his exile at the Hague in the Netherlands and departs from Scheveningen harbor on the English ship Naseby, renamed for the occasion HMS Royal Charles , as part of a fleet of English warships brought by Admiral Edward Montagu.[11] On commemorative memorabilia in the Netherlands, the date of Charles's departure is listed as June 2, 1660, the date on the Gregorian calendar used in continental Europe but not in EnglandKing Charles II lands at DoverThe Treaty of Copenhagen is signed, marking the conclusion of the Second Northern War. Sweden returns Trøndelag to Norway, and Bornholm to DenmarkKing Charles II of England arrives in London and assumes the throne, marking the beginning of the English RestorationMary Dyer is hanged for defying a law banning Quakers from the Massachusetts Bay ColonyDr Edward Stanley preaches a sermon in the nave of Winchester Cathedral, to commemorate the return of the Chapter, following the English RestorationThe Indemnity and Oblivion Act, officially "An Act of Free and General Pardon, Indemnity, and Oblivion" is given royal assent.[16] as a general pardon for everyone who had committed crimes during the English Civil War and Interregnum (with the exception of certain crimes such as murder, piracy, buggery, rape and witchcraft, and people named in the act such as those involved in the regicide of Charles I). It also said that no action was to be taken against those involved at any later time, and that the InterGrigore I Ghica becomes the new Prince of Wallachia (now in Romania)Juan Francisco Leiva y de la Cerda arrives in Mexico City as the new Viceroy of New SpainThe Rigsraad (High Council) of Denmark is abolished and Denmark-Norway becomes an absolute monarchy as King Frederik III is recognized by the nobility as being entitled to have his throne passed to his descendants by hereditary monarchyAt Gresham College in London, twelve men, including Christopher Wren, Robert Boyle, John Wilkins, and Sir Robert Moray meet after a lecture by Wren, and decide to found "a College for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematicall Experimentall Learning" (later known as the Royal Society)The first English actress appears on the professional stage in England in a non-singing role, as Desdemona in Othello at Vere Street Theatre in London, following the reopening of the theatres (various opinions have been advanced that the actress was Margaret Hughes, Anne Marshall or Katherine Corey).[19][20][21] Historian Elizabeth Howe notes, however, that both William Davenant and Thomas Killigrew had women in their acting companies before 1660, and that Anne Marshall might be just one of the first ratherThe Company of the Royal Adventurers into Africa, planned by Prince James, brother of King Charles II to capture persons along the coast of West Africa for resale as slaves, receives its charter. Prince James, later King James II, had started asking for investors (at 250 pounds sterling per share) starting on October 3, 1660The Convention Parliament is dissolved by King Charles II and elections are called for what will be called the Cavalier ParliamentRaphael Levy, a Jewish resident of the city of Metz in France is burned at the stake after having been accused of the September 25 abduction and ritual murder of a small child who had disappeared from the village of Glatigny. The prosecutor applies to King Louis XIV for an order expelling all 95 Jewish families from Metz, which the King refuses to doThe Fifth Monarchists, led by Thomas Venner, unsuccessfully attempt to seize control of London; George Monck's regiment defeats themThe Rokeby baronets, a British nobility title is createdThe body of Oliver Cromwell is exhumed and subjected to a posthumous execution in London, along with those of John Bradshaw and Henry IretonThe Shunzhi Emperor of the Chinese Qing Dynasty dies, and is succeeded by his 7-year-old son the Kangxi EmperorGeorge Monck’s regiment becomes The Lord General's Regiment of Foot Guards in England (which later becomes the Coldstream Guards)Following the death of his mentor, Cardinal Jules Mazarin, who had been Minister of State since before the birth of King Louis XIV of France, King Louis, now almost 18, starts to rule independently without need for a regentGeneral Zheng Chenggong of China, known as "Koxinga" leads an invasion of the island of Taiwan, at the time under the control of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), bringing 25,000 soldiers and sailors on hundreds of boats to claim the territoryKing Charles II of England, Scotland, and Ireland is crowned in Westminster AbbeyThe "Cavalier Parliament", the longest serving Parliament in British history, is opened following the first parliamentary elections since the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. The first session of the House of Commons and the House of Lords lasts until June 30 and then reopens on November 20. The Cavalier Parliament continues meeting, without new elections, until being dissolved on January 24, 1679Leaders of the indigenous Taiwanese villages in the plains and mountains of the Dutch-ruled island begin surrendering to the Chinese forces led by Koxinga and agreeing to hunt down and execute Dutch people on the islandThe Marquess of Argyll, one of the first of the Scottish-born people sentenced to death as a regicide for his role in the conviction and execution of King Charles I of England and Scotland in 1649, is beheaded at the Tolbooth Prison in Edinburgh using the "Scottish Maiden," almost immediately after his conviction of collaboration with the government of Oliver CromwellAt Edinburgh, the public execution of Presbyterian minister James Guthrie, followed by Captain William Govan, takes place at the Mercat Cross at Parliament Square, days after both have been convicted of treason for their roles in the execution of King Charles I. The heads are severed from the corpses and displayed on spikes in the squareGeneral Zheng Chenggong of China takes control of most of the island of Taiwan from the Dutch East India Company and proclaims the Kingdom of Tungning, with himself as the rulerThe "Marriage Treaty" is signed between representatives of King Charles II of England and King João IV of Portugal, providing a military alliance between the two kingdoms and a marriage between Charles of the House of Stuart and João's daughter Catherine of the House of Braganza on May 21, 1662. The treaty also sets the transfer of Portuguese territory in India (at Bombay) and in North Africa (Tangier) to England as well as military aid from England to PortugalThe war between the empires of Russia and Sweden is ended with the signing of the Treaty of Cardis in what is now the Estonian city of Kärde. Russia returns those portions of Livonia and Ingria that it had taken earlier from SwedenPortugal and the Dutch Republic sign the Treaty of The Hague, whereby the Dutch Republic's South American colony of Nieuw-Holland is sold to Portugal for the equivalent of roughly 63,000 kilograms (139,000 lb) of gold, and incorporated into Brazil. The territory includes much of what will later become the Brazilian states of Ceará, Maranhão, Paraíba, Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Norte. Among the major Dutch settlements lost are Mauritsstad (Recife), Fort Schoonenborch (Fortaleza), Nieuw-Amsterdam (Natal), aThe territory includes much of what will later become the Brazilian states of Ceará, Maranhão, Paraíba, Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Norte. Among the major Dutch settlements lost are Mauritsstad (Recife), Fort Schoonenborch (Fortaleza), Nieuw-Amsterdam (Natal), and Frederikstadt (João Pessoa)Köprülüzade Fazıl Ahmed Pasha is appointed as the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire at the request of his late father, the Grand Vizier Köprülü Mehmed Pasha, serving under the Sultan Mehmed IV for 15 years and continuing the Köprülü family dynasty whose members will serve as Viziers until 1711Polish and Lithuanian forces, led by King Jan II Kazimierz (who is also the Grand Duke of Lithuania) defeat the Russian Army at the Battle of KushlikiGeneral Wu Sangui of China arrives in Burma with 20,000 troops and demands that the Burmese surrender Yongli, the last of the Ming dynasty rulers of Southern China before the Qing dynasty consolidated its rule. Burma's King Pye Min hands Yongli over to General Wu on January 15, and Yongi is subsequently executedA Portuguese garrison invades Morocco and kidnaps 35 women and girls, then steals 400 head of cattle. The Moroccans counterattack and kill the garrison's commander, 12 knights and 38 other Portuguese soldiers before the surviving Portuguese are given sanctuary inside the English fortress at Tangier. A brief war ensues between England and MoroccoFormer Chinese Emperor Yongli, who had surrendered to General Wu Sangui in December, is put on a boat along with his sons and grandsons at Sagaing in Burma (at the time, Burma), leaving under the promise that they will be given safe passage elsewhere in Burma. Instead, the former Emperor is taken back to China and executed on June 1Chinese general Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) captures the Dutch East India Company's settlement at Fort Zeelandia (now Tainan) on the island of Taiwan after a nine-month siege, ending the company's rule on the island, then establishes the Kingdom of Tungning. In response, the Kangxi Emperor of the mainland Qing dynasty relocates all residents along the southern coast, by 50 milesA violent storm in the Indian Ocean strikes a fleet of seven ships of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) as they are traveling back to the Dutch Republic from Batavia in the Dutch East Indies (now Jakarta, Indonesia). Three of the freighters— Wapen van Holland, Gekroonde Leeuw and Prins Willem — are lost with all hands. The ships Vogel Phoenix, Maarsseveen and Prinses Royal make their way back to the Netherlands. The other ship, the freighter Arnhem remains afloat and its roughly 80 survivors are able to evThe survivors of the wreck of the Dutch freighter Arnhem strike reefs but are able to make their way to an uninhabited island,[1] probably the Ile D'Ambre[2] or Ilot Fourneau [1] both islands within the territory of Mauritius. During more than two months while shipwrecked, the survivors kill and eat the local wildlife, including the last surviving dodo. They are rescued by the English ship Truroe in MayThree of the former members of the English Parliament who had signed the death warrant for Charles I of England in 1649 and then fled into exile in the Netherlands after the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660 — Miles Corbet, John Okey and John Barkstead — are hanged after having been extradited, returned to England, and convicted of regicide. Their bodies are then drawn and quarteredThe Golden Hill Paugussett tribe, granted reservations in the British colony of Connecticut in North America, sell a large amount of tribal land to Captain Joseph Hawley including several towns in Fairfield County: Shelton, Trumbull, Derby and MonroeChinese warlord Zheng Chenggong sends a message to the Spanish government of the Philippines demanding payment of tribute and threatening to send a fleet of ships to conquer the area. The message reaches the Spanish Governor-General on May 5, and preparations are made to resist the invasionJohn Winthrop the Younger, the son of the first governor of Massachusetts, is honored by being made a fellow of the Royal Society, England's new scientific society. Winthrop uses his election to the Society to gain access to the king, who grants him a new charter, uniting the colonies of Connecticut and New HavenThe Act of Uniformity 1662, officially "An Act for the uniformity of common prayer and service in the Church, and administration of the sacraments", is given royal assent after being passed by the English Parliament to regulate the form of public prayers, sacraments, and other rites of the Church of England to conform with the newest edition of the Book of Common Prayer, the 1662 prayer bookRoyal assent is also given to England's new hearth tax law, with one shilling charged for each stove or fireplace in a building, to be collected on 29 September and on 25 March each year in order to provide the £1,200,000 annual household income for King Charles II. The unpopular tax is abolished in 1689Princess Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King João IV of Portugal, marries Charles II of England.[5] As part of the dowry, Portugal cedes Bombay in India, and Tangier in Morocco, to EnglandRioting in the Chinese section of Manila breaks out in the wake of calls to kill non-Christian Chinese residents of the Philippines, and the Spanish Army fires cannons at the rioting crowd. An order follows for non-Christian Chinese Filipinos to leave Manila, and for Christian Filipinos to register with the government. Boats begin transporting the non-Christians back to ChinaThe "Sangley Massacre" is ordered by Sabiniano Manrique de Lara, the Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines, with the directive for the government to kill all Filipinos of Chinese ancestry — Sangleys — who disobey orders to assemble at Manila for deportationThe Matthews baronets British nobility title is createdThe Pierce baronets British nobility title is createdThe Royal Society, founded by King Charles II of England and Scotland receives an official charter in LondonThe Act of Uniformity goes into effect on St Bartholomew's Day ,[10] making mandatory in the Church of England the forms of worship prescribed in the new edition of the Book of Common Prayer the deadline having been set for "every clergyman and every schoolmaster... to express, by August 24, his unfeigned consent to everything contained in the Book of Common Prayer. This is followed by the resignation of over 2,000 clergy who resign "for conscience sake"The Parliament of Scotland passes the Act of Indemnity and Oblivion, an amnesty (with numerous specific exceptions) for most political crimes committed by Scottish citizens during the years between January 1, 1637 (prior to the 1639 beginning of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and before the restoration of the monarchy on September 16, 1660The first payments under England's hearth tax law, enacted on May 19, become dueCharles II of England sells Dunkirk to France, for £400,000 (2.5 million French livres)The English Royal Society holds its first meetingThe Purefoy baronets British nobility title is createdNicolas Fouquet is banished from FranceThe Royal African Company is granted a Royal Charter by Charles II of EnglandA magnitude 7.3 to 7.9 earthquake hits Canada's Quebec ProvinceEnglish pirates led by Christopher Myngs and Edward Mansvelt carry out the sack of Campeche in Mexico, looting the town during a two week occupation that ends on February 23The Prince Edward Islands in the sub-antarctic Indian Ocean are discovered by Barent Barentszoon Lam, of the Dutch ship Maerseveen, and named Dina (Prince Edward) and Maerseveen (Marion)Emperor Go-Sai's reign ends, and Emperor Reigen ascends to the throne of JapanKing Charles II of England issues the Charter of Carolina, establishing the Province of Carolina, and dividing it between eight Lords ProprietorsThe King's Theatre, now called "Drury Lane", opens in LondonUnder the pretext of working out a treaty with Dutch settlers in the colony of New Netherland, the Esopus tribe of the Delaware people enter the fortress at Wiltwijck (now the U.S. city of Kingston, New York) and stage a surprise attack. Unbeknownst to the Wiltwijck residents, another group of Esopus warriors had destroyed the village of Nieu Dorp (now Hurley, New York) earlier in the day. The episode begins the Second Esopus WarThe Battle of AmeixialKing Charles II of England grants John Clarke a Royal Charter for the American colony of Rhode Island and Providence PlantationsActing as intermediaries between the Dutch and Esopus war parties, a group of three Mohawk Indians obtain the release of the first four hostages who had been taken hostage in the Esopus attack on Wildwyck, two women and two childrenThe English Parliament passes the second Navigation Act, requiring that all goods bound for the American colonies have to be sent in English ships from English portsOratam, leader of the Hackensack tribe of the Lenape nation, meets in New Amsterdam (now New York City) with Weswatewchy, Memshe and Wemessamy, three chiefs of the Monsiyok tribe, to ask for the Hackensacks to supply a cannon to defend their fort, and to confirm that the Monsiyok are not allied with the other major division of the Lenape, the Esopus tribeConcerned about the wintry weather, the Parliament of England holds an intercessory fastDutch Captain Martin Kregier and Lieutenant Couwenhoven lead an attack against the Esopus Indians from the right and Lieutenant Stilwil and Ensign Niessen the left wing. In the battle, near what is now Mamakating, New York, Chief Papequanaehen and 14 other Esopus warriors are killed, along with seven civilians; three Dutch soldiers are killed, but 23 Dutch prisoners are rescuedDiego de Salcedo becomes the new Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines, replacing Sabiniano Manrique de Lara, who had served for more than 10 years. Salcedo is overthrown in 1668The Gloucester County Conspiracy, the first slave rebellion in British North America, is foiled after one of the plotters, John Birkenhead, reveals the plan of African slaves and English indentured servants to kill their masters. Birkenhead is freed by his master as a reward for betraying the rebelsThe Farnley Wood Plot, a conspiracy in the English county of West Yorkshire to overthrow the recently-restored monarchy and to return to the military rule that had been established by the late Oliver Cromwell, fails when only 26 men gather at Farnley. The group is arrested and 21 of the rebels are later executed for treasonThe Battle at Jurjeve StijeneThe Kingdom of Sweden adopts a law creating the flag in use in the nation now, a yellow Nordic cross on a blue background. The original version, used as a state flag and on ships, had three pennantsAlexandre de Prouville de Tracy is appointed by King Louis XIV of Frances as the new Governor General of the French West Indies as the colonies of Saint-Domingue, Saint Martin, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Saint Barthélemy, and Saint Croix are put under a unified rule for the colonies in the Caribbean Sea for the first time since 1651The General Court of Commissioners for Rhode Island and Providence Plantations convenes for the final time, meeting in Newport to formally receive the Rhode Island Royal Charter issued on July 8 by King Charles IIThe Dutch Republic prohibits practice of the common law custom of jus naufragii, the doctrine that permitted people to seize property that had washed ashore on their land after a shipwreckJacob Hustaert becomes the new Governor of Dutch CeylonJesuit missionary Johann Grueber arrives in Rome after a 214-day journey that had started in Beijing, proving that commerce can be had between Europe and Asia by land rather than shipThe Treaty of Pisa is signed between France and the Papal States to bring an end to the Corsican Guard Affair that began on August 20, 1662, when the French ambassador was shot and killed by soldiers in the employ of Pope Alexander VIIA peace treaty is signed in Turin in Italy to end the War of the Banished between the Duchy of Savoy and the WaldensiansAlexandre de Prouville de Tracy, appointed by King Louis XIV of France to be the Viceroy of French colonies in the Americas, departs from the port of La Rochelle with 1,200 men and seven ships to expand France's property in the Caribbean Sea and in South AmericaKing Charles II of England makes royal charter for territory in North America that leases to his brother, James, Duke of York, a patent for a large amount of land in what is now the northeastern United States. According to the Charter, James receives "all that part of the mayne land of New England" between "New Scotland in America" and the river of Kenebeque", along with "Mattowacks or Long Island" and "Martins Vineyard and Nantukes", and the lands between the "Connecticutte and Hudsons rivers" and the landAll grants to the Compagnie des Isles de l'Amerique for development of French-claimed islands in the Caribbean Sea are revoked by King Louis XIV, including the rights to the islands of Martinique and Saint Lucia that had been sold to Marie Bonnard du Parquet prior to her death in 1659Juan Alonso de Cuevas y Dávalos is appointed as the new Roman Catholic Archbishop of Mexico by Pope Alexander VII, to allow Archbishop Mateo de Sagade de Bugueyro to return to Spain. Archbishop Cuevas is installed on November 15 upon his arrival in Mexico CityThe original version of Tartuffe, a comedy by French playwright and actor Molière, is given its first performance, staged at the Palace of VersaillesGuerin Spranger, commander of the Dutch fortress at Cayenne in South America, surrenders without a fight to French commander Alexandre de Prouville de Tracy and 1,200 employees of the Compagnie de la France équinoxiale, giving France control of the territory that becomes the colony of French GuianaKing Louis XIV of France establishes the Compagnie des Indes Occidentales by royal decree to replace the recently cancelled Compagnie des Isles de l'AmeriqueIn the city of Mantua in Italy, the world's oldest continuously published private newspaper, Gazzetta di Mantova, publishes its first-known issue. The newspaper would celebrate its 350th anniversary in 2014The Second Anglo-Dutch War carries over to North America as soldiers of the English Army invade the Dutch colony of New Netherland, promised by King Charles II of England to his brother, the Duke of York. By October, the Dutch Republic surrenders the colony to the English and New Netherland (and its largest city, New Amsterdam) are renamed in honor of YorkBattle of Saint GotthardSir John Lisle, a former member of the English House of Commons who had been designated a regicide for his role in signing the death warrant in the execution in 1649 of Charles I of England, is assassinated in a church courtyard in Lausanne in Switzerland. Lisle had gone into exile after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. The shooting of Lisle, done on order of King Charles II, is carried out by a team led by royal agent James CotterThe French East India Company (Compagnie des Indes Orientales) is foundedPeter Stuyvesant, Director-General of the Dutch Republic colony of New Netherland, surrenders New Amsterdam to an English naval squadron, commanded by Colonel Richard Nicolls, without bloodshed. The English promptly rename the fledgling city New York, after the Duke of York (later King James II)The French Navy ship Tigre sinks off of the coast of the island of Sardinia, with the loss of 64 men. Another 58 of the crew are rescuedThe "Duke of York and Albany's maritime regiment of foot" is formed in London and serves as a precursor to the Royal Marines of the United KingdomSurrounded by a Berber army, the French Navy evacuates the presidio of Jijel, a Mediterranean Sea port in what is now the Republic of Algeria, after having captured it from the Algiers Recency on June 12The oldest hospital in India, the Government General Hospital, is opened at Madras by the English East India Company for the treatment of ill soldiersLithuanian colonist Jacob Kettler, Duke of Courland, gives up all of his rights to his African colony at St Andrew's Island in the Gambia River to representatives of King Charles II, in return for keeping possession of the Caribbean island of TobagoThe English warships HMS Nonsuch and HMS Phoenix are wrecked in a storm at GibraltarAll but 3 members of the over 200-person crew of the Dutch ship Kennemerland are killed when the trade ship sinks in a storm near the Out Skerries islands off of the coast of ScotlandThe Journal des sçavans begins publication of the first scientific journal in FranceMolière's comedy Dom Juan ou le Festin de pierre, based on the Spanish legend of the womanizer Don Juan Tenorio and Tirso de Molina's Spanish play El burlador de Sevilla y convidado de piedra, premieres in Paris at the Théâtre du Palais-RoyalIn India, Shivaji Bhonsale of the Maratha Empire captures the English East India Company's trading post at Sadashivgad (now located in the Indian state of Karnataka)The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London begins publication in England, the first scientific journal in English and the oldest to be continuously publishedA new legal code is approved for the Dutch and English towns of New York, guaranteeing all Protestants the right to continue their religious observances unhinderedBucharest allows Jews to settle in the city, in exchange for an annual tax of 16 guildersThe burial of Margaret Porteous is recorded; hers is the first known death during the Great Plague of London. This last major outbreak of Bubonic plague in the British Isles has possibly been introduced by Dutch prisoners of war. Two-thirds of Londoners leave the city, but over 68,000 die. The plague spreads to DerbyshireGreat fire of Newport, Shropshire, EnglandShivaji, leader of the Bhonsale clan of the Marathas in India, signs the Treaty of Purandar with the Mughal Empire, giving up 23 of the 35 forts under his control, agreeing to pay reparations to the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, and sending his son to stay as a hostage at AgraEngland installs a municipal government in New York City (the former Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam)Battle of LowestoftKing Charles II of England issues a second charter for the Province of Carolina, which clarifies and expands the borders of the Lords Proprietors' tractsKing Charles II of England leaves London with his entourage, fleeing the Great Plague. He moves his court to Salisbury, then ExeterThe colonization of the south Indian Ocean island Réunion begins, with the Compagnie des Indes Orientales sending 20 permanent settlers, under the command of Etienne Regnault, from the French ship TaureauPierre de Beausse, an envoy of France's King Louis XIV, formally claims possession of the African island of Madagascar on behalf of the French East India Company after landing on the coast in the 32-gun frigate Saint-PaulThe Battle of VågenThe Great Plague forces the closure of the University of Cambridge, where Isaac Newton is a student. Newton retires to his home in Lincolnshire for safety and stays there for two years. During this time alone, Newton will make groundbreaking discoveries in mathematics, calculus, mechanics and optics, and lay the foundations for his books Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica and OptiksYe Bare & Ye Cubbe, the first play in English in the American colonies, is given its first performance. The presentation takes place at Cowles Tavern in Pungoteague, Virginia. The event is documented in 1958 in a historical marker with the heading "The Bear and the Cub" which says "This first play recorded in the United States was presented August 27, 1665. The Accomack County Court at Pungoteague heard charges against three men 'for acting a play,' ordered inspection of costumes and script, but found the mCharles II of Spain becomes king while not yet four years oldMolière's L'Amour médecin is first presented, before Louis XIV of France, at the Palace of Versailles, with music by Jean-Baptiste LullyLouis XIV of France and Jean-Baptiste Colbert found the Manufacture royale des glaces of Saint Gobain, which is the oldest French company of the CAC 40, with 350 years in 2015Battle of MbwilaThe London Gazette is first published as The Oxford GazetteThe Royal Netherlands Marine Corps is founded by Michiel de RuyterThe Chair of Saint Peter (Cathedra Petri, designed by Bernini) is set above the altar in St. Peter's Basilica in RomeThe joint English and Scottish royal court returns to London, as the Great Plague of London subsidesIn colonial British North America, "Articles of Peace and Amity" are signed between the governments of the Province of Maryland and 12 Eastern Algonquian tribes — the Piscataways, Anacostancks, Doegs, Mattawomans, Portobackes, Chopticos, Mikikiwomans, Manasquesends, Chingwawateicks, Hangemaicks, Sacayos, and PanyayosOn Saint Christopher Island more commonly called St Kitts, a Caribbean Sea Island divided between colonies of England and France, a battle near Sandy Point Town over control of the territory ends with a victory by the French over a numerically superior English force two days later,English Deputy Governor William Watts of Anguilla had sent an expedition to capture the neighboring island of Saint Martin. Governor Watts and the French Governor of Saint-Christophe, Charles de Sales, are both killed in the battlIn India, General Shivaji Bhonsale of the Maratha Empire arrives at the Agra Fort for a meeting with Emperor Aurangzeb of the Mughal Empire, as part of the terms of peace under the 1665 Treaty of Purandar. After taking offence at the disrespect shown to him, he gets angry and attempts to leave; he and his son Sambhaji are immediately placed under arrest and imprisoned at the fortFrench theologian Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy is imprisoned in the Bastille after his conviction for heresy in connection with the Jansenist movement. Sacy uses his two and one-half years of incarceration (which lasts until November 14, 1668), to create the Bible du Port-Royal, a first French language rendition of the Bible, finishing a translation of the Old Testament from the Vulgate, written in Latin, that had been started by his brother Antoine, and then beginning work on the New TestamentThe Holy Roman Empire, ruled by Leopold I, repurchases the territory of the Duchy of Opole and Racibórz (Oppeln und Ratibor), which it had ceded to Poland in 1645, for the sum of 120,000 guldens and consolidates it with Upper Silesia. The territory will be ceded from Germany to Poland in 1945 at the end of World War IIMolière's comedy The Misanthrope is premièred at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in Paris, by the King's PlayersOn 3 Muharram 1077 AH on the Muslim calendar, Sa'd ibn Zayd, a descendant of Hasan ibn Ali and of Muhammad (founder of Islam) becomes the new Sharif of Mecca, in modern-day Saudi Arabia. His ascension to the post follows the death of his father, Zayd ibn Muhsin, who had been the Sharif since 1631The Battle of MątwyThe Agreement of Legonice is signed, with Poland restoring the titles of Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski and Lubomirski's officers, granting amnesty to all the rebels, and King Jan II Kazimierz abandoning further reform plansA hurricane sweeps through the Caribbean Sea near Guadeloupe five days after Barbados colonial Governor Francis Willoughby led a force of two Royal Navy frigates, 12 commandeered vessels and over 1,000 men in a battle against French colonies during the Second Anglo-Dutch War. Willoughby and most of his crew die in the sinking of his flagship, HMS HopeSt James' Day BattleIn India, General Shivaji Bhonsale, future ruler of the Maratha Empire, and his son Sambhaji escape from house arrest at the Agra Fort, where they have been held prisoner since May 12Rear Admiral Robert Holmes leads an English Royal Navy raid on the Dutch island of Terschelling, destroying 150 merchant ships in the Vlie estuary over a period of two days, and pillaging the town of West-Terschelling. The action becomes known as "Holmes's Bonfire"Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb grants the French East India Company a royal mandate to trade at the port of SuratThe Cestui Que Vie Act 1666 is passed by the Parliament of England, to provide for the disposal of the property of missing personsA "day of humiliation and fasting" is held in London churches a month after the Great Fire of LondonThe Sieur de Buat, Captain Henri de Fleury de Coulan of the Army of the Dutch Republic, is beheaded in public at The Hague after being convicted of attempting to overthrow Dutch leader Johan de WittIn North America, a French Army regiment led by Alexandre de Prouville de Tracy erects crosses in the Mohawk lands of the eastern Iroquois Confederacy territory along the Mohawk River as part of an invasion that started on September 29The most intense tornado on record in English history, an F4 storm on the Fujita scale or T8 on the TORRO scale, strikes the county of Lincolnshire with a path of destruction through the villages of Welbourn, Wellingore, Navenby and Boothby Graffoe, with winds of more than 213 miles per hour (343 km/h)Abbas II, the Shah of Iran, dies at the age of 34 after a reign of 24 years, without designating a successor.[13] His 18-year old son Sam Mirza is crowned as the new Safavid dynasty emperor six days laterRobert Hubert, a Frenchman who had made a false confession to having started the Great Fire of London (despite not arriving in England until two days after the blaze started), is executed based on his statementsThe Battle of Rullion GreenA sobor (church council) of the Russian Orthodox Church deposes Patriarch Nikon of Moscow, but accepts his liturgical reforms. Dissenters from his reforms, known as Old Believers, continue into the 21st centuryThe French Academy of Sciences, founded by Louis XIV, first meetsAurangzeb, monarch of the Mughal Empire, orders the removal of Rao Karan Singh as Maharaja of the Bikaner State (part of the modern-day Rajasthan state of India) because of Karan's dereliction of duty in battleThe town of Anzonico in Switzerland is destroyed by an avalancheThe 2,000 seat Opernhaus am Taschenberg, a theater in Dresden (capital of the Electorate of Saxony) opens with its first production, Pietro Ziani's opera Il teseoIn the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the English Royal Navy warship HMS Saint Patrick is captured less than nine months after being launched, when it fights a battle off the coast of England and North Foreland, Kent. Captain Robert Saunders and 8 of his crew are killed while fighting the Dutch ships Delft and Shakerlo. The Dutch Navy renames the ship the ZwanenburgThe Treaty of Andrusovo is signed during the Russo-Polish War. Poland cedes eastern Ukraine, including Kiev and Smolensk, to Russia. ending Poland's status as a major Central European powerThe first part of the Rebuilding of London Act 1666, following the destruction by the Great Fire of London of 1666, goes into effect as royal assent is given to the Fire of London Disputes Act 1666, which establishes the Fire CourtThe Lejonkulan ("lion's den") opens at Stockholm in Sweden as the first permanent theater in Scandinavia, with the performance of Jean Magnon's Orontes en SatiraDuring the Second Anglo-Dutch War, a Dutch Navy force commanded by Admiral Abraham Crijnssen arrives at the English colony of Surinam in South America and sails up the Suriname River to Fort Willoughby (later Fort Zeelandia at Paramaribo). Bombardment of the fort begins the next day, and its commander, William Byam surrenders, effectively giving control of Surinam to the Dutch Republic. The cession is confirmed with the signing of the Peace of Breda on July 31Joasaphus II is elected by the Council of Bishops as the new Patriarch of Moscow, leader of the Russian Orthodox Church, after conservative clerics depose Patriarch Nikon for his reformation of the ChurchIn North America (Canada), explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle is released from the Society of Jesus (Jesuits)The 1667 Dubrovnik earthquake in the Republic of Ragusa (part of modern-day Croatia) kills as many as 5,000 people, roughly one sixth of the population, and levels most of the buildings in DubrovnikA Dutch flotilla under Admiral van Ghent enters the Firth of ForthPrince Prithviraj Singh, eldest son of the Maharaja Jaswant Singh of the Kingdom of Marwar (within India's Mughal Empire, part of the modern-day Rajasthan state) dies painfully at the age of 14, supposedly after putting on a khalat (a ceremonial robe) given to him by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. According to the folklore of Marwar, the khalat was actually a garment infused with poison that penetrated the skinFabio Chigi, Pope Alexander VII, dies at the age of 68 after a reign of 12 years. The election to find a successor opens on June 2The first human blood transfusion is administered by Dr. Jean-Baptiste Denys.[10] He transfuses the blood of a sheep to a 15-year-old boy. (Though this operation is a success, a later patient dies from the procedure and Denys is accused of murder)Giulio Rospigliosi is elected by the College of Cardinals to succeed the late Pope Alexander VII, after receiving 61 of the 64 votes of the cardinals present. He takes the regnal name Pope Clement IX, becoming the 238th head of the Roman Catholic ChurchLouis XIV of France conquers TournaiGeorge Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, one of the five members of the Cabal ministry in England (Lords Chudleigh, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley and Lauderdale), turns himself in after a warrant for his arrest is issued on February 25 on charges of treason (including the casting of the horoscope of King Charles II). He is held in the Tower of London[8] for four years before being released on July 17, 1671The Treaty of Breda ends the war by England against the Dutch Republic, France and Denmark and Norway. In the Americas, the Dutch retain control of Surinam, the English retain New Netherland and the French AcadiaThe province of Holland in the Dutch Republic passes the "Perpetual Edict" declaring that it will no longer acknowledge the authority of the republic's Stadtholder, and other provinces soon follow suitThe League of the Rhine is dissolved by agreement of its members, nine years and one day after its formation as a military alliance between German kingdoms in the western part of the Holy Roman EmpireJohn Dryden's comedy Sir Martin Mar-all, or The Feign'd Innocence is given its first performance, presented by the players of the King's Theatre in LondonIn an effort to prevent narrow streets from being blocked from all light by tall buildings, the city of Paris enacts its first building code limiting the height of new construction. Buildings may be no taller than eight toise — 15.6 metres (51 ft) — tall. In 1783, rules are implemented to consider the width of the streetThe Treaty of Breda goes into effect after having been signed on July 31, bringing an end to hostilities between England and its three opponentsIn China, 14-year-old Xuanye, the Kangxi Emperor, participates in an ascension ceremony to take full power to rule China, bringing an end to the domination of the "Four Regents" who had been ruling in his name when he had first inherited the throne at the age of 6. The move comes shortly after the August 12 death of one of the regents, Sonin, when it becomes clear that the regents were planning to expand their power in advance of Kangxi's coming of ageThe "Dreadful Hurricane of 1667" ravages southeast Virginia, bringing 12 days of rain, blowing down plantation homes and stripping fields of cropsYohannes I becomes king of Ethiopia, following the death of his father Negus FasilidesIn India, Assam troops led by General Lachit Borphukan, dispatched by King Supangmung, captures the Mughal Empire city of Guwahati after a victory in battle at ItakhuliEmperor Aurangzeb, ruler of the Mughal Empire in India, orders a massive counterattack on Assam's Ahom kingdom after learning that Mughal troops had captured Guwahati. Aurangzeb appoints Raja Ram Singh to command a force of 36,000 infantry, 18,000 cavalry, 2,000 archers and 40 ships to conquer Ahom. The war lasts until the defeat of the Mughals by the smaller Ahom force in March 1671The Triple Alliance of 1668 is formed between England, Sweden and the United Provinces of the NetherlandsIn Lisbon, a peace treaty is established between Afonso VI of Portugal and Carlos II of Spain, by mediation of Charles II of England, in which the legitimacy of the Portuguese monarch is recognized. Portugal yields Ceuta to SpainKing Charles II of England signs an agreement with representatives of the English East India Company to lease the Indian city of Bombay (modern-day Mumbai) to the company for a rent of 10 pounds sterling per year, with transfer taking effect on September 21Henry Brouncker is expelled from the English House of Commons for treason during the 1665 Battle of Lowestoft during the Second Anglo-Dutch WarThe Treaty of Breda, signed in 1667 and ending the Second Anglo-Dutch War, goes into effect worldwideThe Swedish Empire signs a treaty with England and the Dutch Republic to join the Triple AllianceThe first Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the War of DevolutionTangier, a city in Morocco that had come under control of the English colonial empire in 1661, is elevated by the English crown to the status of "free city"A group of Spanish Jesuit missionaries become the first European settlers to arrive at the island of Guam, founding a mission to convert the Chamorro people of the Mariana Islands to ChristianityPetro Doroshenko is proclaimed by the Russian Empire as the hetman of all of Ukraine, after having previously been granted leadership of the western half. Ivan Briukhovetsky, who had ruled the eastern half and then led an uprising, is executed on the same dayBishop Isaac Barrow founds the Bishop Barrow Trust with the intention of establishing a university on the Isle of Man; this becomes King William's CollegeWelsh privateer Henry Morgan and 450 men under his command plunder the city of Portobello on the Isthmus of Panama and Panama City and spend 14-days in the attack before withdrawingJan II Kazimierz Waza abdicates his titles of King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania after a 20-year reignThe magnitude 8.5 Shandong earthquake kills at least 43,000 people in China's Shandong provinceThe magnitude 8.0 North Anatolia earthquake causes 8,000 deaths in northern Anatolia, Ottoman Empire, and is the most powerful earthquake recorded in TurkeyMolière's comedy The Miser (L'Avare) is first performed, in ParisThe British East India Company takes over Bombay under a Royal Charter of March 27Diego de Salcedo is overthrown from his position as the Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines in a coup d'etat led by Juan Manuel de la Peña Bonifaz. Salcedo and other members of his administration are jailed and then sent into exile from Luzon to the island of Panay, and his fortune is confiscatedThe English blockade of the Moroccan port of Salé begins as HMS Garland and HMS Francis retaliate for raids from the port by the Barbary pirates. The blockade lasts for 10 daysFrench Jesuit missionary Jean Pierron arrives at the Mohawk Nation city of Tionondogen (near modern-day Palatine, New York, U.S.) to replace Jacques Frémin in attempting to convert members of the Iroquois tribe to ChristianityThe English ship HMS Providence is wrecked at Tangier on the North African coastIliaș Alexandru steps down as the voivode or elected ruler of Moldavia (now part of Romania and the Republic of Moldova) and is replaced by his predecessor, Gheorghe DucaIn China, the 1661 edict of the "Great Clearance", the forcible evacuation of the coastal areas of Guangdong, Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangnan, and Shandong in order to fight a rebellion, is rescinded by the Emperor Kangxi after lobbying by Zhou Youde, the Viceroy of LiangguangFritz Cronman arrives in Moscow as the Swedish Empire's ambassador to the Russian Empire, accompanied by a staff of 35 peoplePirate Henry Morgan of Wales holds a meeting of his captains on board his ship, the former Royal Navy frigate Oxford, and an explosion in the ship's gunpowder supply kills 200 of his crew and four of the pirate captains who had attended the summitThe first performance of the Ballet de Flore, a joint collaboration of Jean-Baptiste Lully and Isaac de Benserade is given, premiering at the Palais du Louvre in Paris. King Louis XIV finances the performance and even appears in a minor role in the production as a dancerMount Etna erupts, destroying the Sicilian town of NicolosiRadu Leon is deposed by the Ottoman Sultan as Prince of Wallachia (now part of Romania and is replaced by Antonie Vodă din PopeștiAurangzeb, the Muslim Emperor of the Mughal Empire in India, issues a firman decree for the protection of all Hindu temples and schools in his kingdomThe first people executed in Sweden's Mora witch trial are put to death, with seven women and one man beheaded after being convicted of "abduction of children to SatanRoux de Marsilly, accused of plotting the assassination of King Louis XIV of France, is publicly tortured in Paris, FranceFrançois de Vendôme, Duke of Beaufort, disappears in battle, during the siege of Candia in CreteDuring an attempt by a fleet of French Navy ships to stop the siege of Candia by bombardment of Ottoman positions on the island of Crete, the arsenal of gunpowder on the French flagship, the 56-gun warship Thérèse, catches fire and explodes. Out of 350 crew on the Thérèse, only seven survive. Demoralized, the remaining French commanders halt the bombardment and the fleet withdrawsA group of English settlers, led by Joseph West, departs from The Downs on the ship Carolina with instructions to make the first European settlement in what is now the U.S. state of South Carolina. After a long voyage with stops in Ireland and Barbados, the Carolina settlers arrive at Port Royal on March 17"The Man in the Iron Mask", a prisoner identified as "Eustache Dauger", arrives at the French fortress of Pignerol, with Bénigne Dauvergne de Saint-Mars in charge of his incarceration. Because the identity of the prisoner is kept secret with a cloth mask over his face, a legend begins that his facial covering is made of iron. Dauger's identity is never confirmed, but French novelist and historian theorizes in a 1965 book, Le Secret du Masque de fer, that Dauger was the older, illegitimate brother of France'Francesco Morosini, capitano generale of the Venetian forces in the siege of Candia, surrenders to the OttomansLeopold I, Holy Roman Emperor grants the status and privileges of a university to the Jesuit Academy in Zagreb, the precursor to the modern University of ZagrebThe formal coronation of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki as King of Poland (and Grand Duke of Lithuania takes place in KrakówDutch painter Rembrandt van Rijn dies at the age of 63, after completing his final known work Self-Portrait at the Age of 63. Despite his wealth, is buried in an unmarked grave in Amsterdam's Westerkerk. After 20 years, his remains are removed and destroyed in accordance with church customThe English ship Nonsuch returns to London with the first products acquired from trade around Canada's Hudson Bay, a cargo of fine furs. The bounty from the Nonsuch expedition attracts investors for the soon-to-be-chartered Hudson's Bay CompanyThe University of Innsbruck is chartered in Austria by Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. [8] After being reduced to a lesser function on November 29, 1781, it is rechartered in 1826The Parliament of Scotland holds its first new session in six years (although two Conventions of Estates had been held briefly in 1665 and 1667). The session is opened in Edinburgh by Charles II of England in his capacity as King of ScotlandUkrainian Cossack General Mykhailo Khanenko is defeated by Petro Doroshenko at the Battle of Stebliv after attempting to wrest control of Ukraine's territory on the west side of the Dnieper River from DoroshenkoIn India, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb learns of a rebellion of Hindu residents of in various parts of the Mathurá where he had given the order for the destruction of non-Muslim temples, with rioting in Mauza' Rewarah, Chandarkah, and Surkhrú. The Emperor's historian, Saqi Mustaid Khan, records Aurangzeb's dispatch of General Hasan 'Ali Khán to attack the rebels, and 300 of them are "sent to perdition" while the Mughals lose "many imperial soldiers". Another 250 surviving rebels are arrested. Kokilá Ját, leThe Sultanate of Bima, located on the now-Indonesian island of Sumbawa and ruled by Abu'l-Khair Sirajuddin, surrenders its authority to the Dutch East Indies Company, the VOCRaphael Levy, a Jewish resident of the city of Metz in France, is burned at the stake after being accused of the September 25 abduction and ritual murder of a child who had disappeared from the village of Glatigny. The prosecutor applies to King Louis XIV for an order expelling all 95 Jewish families from Metz, but the king refusesThe Muslim emperor Aurangzeb of the Mughal Empire in India issues an order for the destruction of all Hindu temples and schools in the empire, including the Keshvadeva Temple in MathuraChristian V becomes the king of Denmark (which at the time includes Norway) upon the death of his father, Frederick IIIThe royal wedding in Poland, between King Michal Wisniowiecki (who is also the Grand Duke of Lithuania) and Eleonore of Austria (daughter of the late Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor), with ceremonies taking place at the Denhoff Palace in KruszynaOliver Plunkett, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh since 1669, is allowed to return to Ireland for the first time in more than 22 years, after a new policy of tolerance of Catholicism is enacted in England. Plunkett had departed for Rome in 1647 during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. Later executed in 1681 on charges of plotting an invasion of Ireland, Plunkett is canonized as a saint of the Roman Catholic Church in 1975The first English settlers arrive at the modern-day U.S. state of South Carolina, at this time the Province of Clarendon carved out of the Province of Carolina, and construct a settlement at Albemarle Point on the Ashley RiverPetar Zrinski, the Viceroy of Croatia within the Holy Roman Empire, issues a proclamation urging Croatians to rebel against the Habsburg rulers. The uprising fails and Zrinski and his brother-in-law, Krsto Frankopan, are quickly arrested. Both are beheaded in Vienna on April 30, 1671The British warship HMS Sapphire is wrecked beyond repair when her captain, John Pearce, orders the ship to be run aground at Sicily while fleeing what he believes to be four Algerian pirate ships, rather than attempting to fight. The ships turn out to have been friendly, and Pearce and his lieutenant, Andrew Logan, are court-martialed for their cowardice and executed on September 17King Christian V of Denmark fires Christoffer Gabel, who had been the corrupt chief adviser to King Frederick III, and replaces him with Peder GriffenfeldThe Hudson's Bay Company is granted a royal charter in England with the jurisdiction to control administration and commerce in "Rupert's Land", governed for the crown by Rupert, Duke of Cumberland, the cousin of King Charles II. The land is a 1.5 million square mile area of what is now Canada around Hudson Bay. The area controlled covers all of the modern province of Manitoba, most of Saskatchewan, and significant portions of Alberta and Nunavut, as well as parts of what are now Ontario and Quebec, and partCosimo III de' Medici becomes the Grand Duke of Tuscany, at the time an independent nation in Italy, upon the death of his father Ferdinando de' MediciAt Dover, England, Charles II of England and Louis XIV of France sign the Secret Treaty of Dover, ending hostilities between their kingdoms. Louis will give Charles 200,000 pounds annually. In return Charles will relax the laws against Catholics, gradually re-Catholicize England, support French policy against the Dutch Republic (leading England into the Third Anglo-Dutch War), and convert to Catholicism himselfTaking advantage of a monsoon, the Maratha Empire's Shivaji orders an attack on areas that had been turned over to the Mughal Empire and its emperor Aurangazeb in 1765. Within 15 days, the cities of Pune, Baramati, Supi and Indapur, along with the Rohida fort, are recaptured by the Maratha ArmyKing Louis XIV of France issues an ordinance prohibiting the French colonies in the Americas from trading with any other nation except FranceRepresentatives of England (led by King Charles II) and Denmark (led by King Christian V) sign a treaty of alliance and commerce, the Treaty of CopenhagenThe Treaty of Madrid, also known as the Godolphin Treaty, is signed between England and Spain to formally end hostilities left over from the Anglo-Spanish War, in the Caribbean, that ended ten years earlier. For the first time, Spain acknowledges that it is not entitled to all territory in the Americas west of Brazil, as provided by the 1493 line of demarcation decreed by Pope Alexander VI, and by the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal. Spain acknowledges that Jamaica and the Cayman IslanA joint fleet of warships from England (commanded by Commodore Richard Beach on HMS Hampshire) and from the Dutch Republic (led by Admiral Willem Joseph van Ghent on Spiegel) rescue 250 Christian slaves and then sink six Algerian pirate ships in a battle in the Mediterranean Sea off of the coast of Morocco at Cape SpartelThe Parliament of France enacts a uniform criminal code for the nation with the passage of the Criminal Ordinance of 1670, which takes effect on January 1. The code remains in force until October 9, 1789, when it is abrogated during the French RevolutionWilliam Penn and William Mead are found not guilty of violating the Conventicles Act 1670, after a five day jury trial in London. The two had been arrested on August 14 in front of a meeting house Gracechurch Street after preaching a Quaker sermon outside following a ban on preaching indoors. The defiance by the jury leads to the landmark English decision in Bushel's CaseIn India, Chhatrapati Shivaji maharaj, the ruler of the Maratha Empire, leads an attack on the British settlement at Surat near Bombay. British Governor Gerald Aungier secures the British fortress at Surat and saves the lives and property of British citizensLe Bourgeois gentilhomme, a five-act comedy and ballet authored by Molière, is given its first performance, presented before King Louis XIV at the Château de Chambord. Public performances begin on November 23 at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in ParisLouis XIV of France inaugurates the construction of Les Invalides, a veterans' hospital in ParisHenry Morgan, a Welsh privateer in English service, recaptures Santa Catalina Island, ColombiaHenry Morgan captures Fort San Lorenzo, on Panama's Caribbean coastThe expedition of John Narborough leaves Corral Bay having surveyed the coast and lost four hostages to the SpanishThe Criminal Ordinance of 1670, the first attempt at a uniform code of criminal procedure in France, goes into effect after having been passed on August 26, 1670The Battle of Salher is fought in India as the first major confrontation between the Maratha Empire and the Mughal Empire, with the Maratha Army of 40,000 infantry and cavalry under the command of General Prataprao Gujar defeating a larger Mughal force led by General Diler KhanThe ballet Psyché, with music composed by Jean-Baptiste Lully, premieres before the royal court of King Louis XIV at the Théâtre des Tuileries in ParisThe city of Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Panamá, founded more than 150 years earlier at the Isthmus of Panama by Spanish settlers and the first permanent European settlement on the Pacific Ocean, is destroyed by the Welsh pirate Henry MorganThe Tsar Alexis of Russia marries Nataliya Kyrillovna Naryshkina, who gives birth 16 months later to the future Peter the GreatPomone, written by Robert Cambert and considered by modern scholars to be the first French opera, is given its first performance. Using innovative costumes, and machinery for special stage effects, the premiere performed by the Académie d'Opéra at the Salle de la Bouteille theater in Paris is a successThe Danish West India Company, a charter ship company whose operations include human trafficking of African slaves to the Western Hemisphere by its Danish Africa Company subsidiary, is foundedSabine baronets title is created in England for John SabineEngland's Royal Navy launches its first warship to have a frame reinforced by iron bars rather than an all wooden ship, an innovation by naval architect Anthony Deane. The state of the art, 102-gun ship is commissioned on January 18, 1672, as the flagship for Admiral Edward Montagu but is sunk less than five months later in the Battle of Solebay. Iron-framed ships are not attempted again for almost 50 yearsIn Rome, Pope Clement X canonizes Rose of Lima, making her the first Catholic saint of the AmericasThomas Blood, disguised as a clergyman, attempts to steal the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom from the Tower of London. He is immediately caught, because he is too drunk to run with the loot. He is later condemned to death, and then mysteriously pardoned and exiled by King Charles IIThe coronation ceremony of Christian V of Denmark (which includes, at that time, Norway) takes place at the Frederiksborg Castle in Hillerød, north of Copenhagen. Christian had assumed the throne on February 9, 1670, upon the death of his father, Frederick IIIThe Ottoman Empire declares war on PolandAwashonks, the female sachem who leads the Sakonnet Indians in what is now the U.S. state of Rhode Island, signs a peace agreement with the English leaders of the neighboring Plymouth Colony (now part of Massachusetts), along with chiefs Totatomet, Tattacommett and SomagaonetJamaica's Governor Thomas Lynch offers a general pardon to pirates who are willing to come under Jamaican jurisdictionThe Court of King Charles II of England dispatches a letter to the "King of Formosa" (Zheng Jing, ruler of the Kingdom of Tungning) confirming that English ships will be welcome to trade at the "City of Tywan", referring to Taipei on the island of TaiwanThe Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire sign a treaty delineating the borders between their territories in modern-day Greece, with Venice acknowledging the loss of the island of Crete in the Cretan WarDionysius IV, bishop of Larissa, is elected as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, leader of the Eastern Orthodox Christians, after Parthenius IV is sent into exileThe Duke of York's Theatre is opened in London by the players of the Duke's Company, rivals to the "King's Company" at the Theatre Royal, which burns down two months later. The site is now the Dorset Garden TheatreThe first Seventh Day Baptist church in America is founded with a service on a Saturday at Newport, Rhode Island, by Stephen Mumford and four Sabbatarians who believed that Christian church services should be held on Saturday, the seventh and last day of the week, in keeping with the commandment of remembering the SabbathThe Académie royale d'architecture is founded by Louis XIV of France in Paris as the world's first school of architectureAfter the government of England is unable to pay the nation's debts, King Charles II decrees the Stop of the Exchequer, the suspension of payments for one year "upon any warrant, securities or orders, whether registered or not registered therein, and payable within that time, excepting only such payments as shall grow due upon orders on the subsidy, according to the Act of Parliament, and orders and securities upon the fee farm rents, both which are to be proceeded upon as if such a stop had never been madeThe Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, national science academy for England, elects Isaac Newton to its membership, and then demonstrates Newton's reflecting telescope to King Charles IIPope Clement X issues regulations for the prerequisites of removing relics of Roman Catholic saints from sacred cemeteries, requiring advance approval from the Cardinal Vicar in Rome before the remains of the saint can be allowed for view. The Cardinal Vicar is directed to bar regular persons from viewing remains, and to limit inspection to high prelates and to princesThe Theatre Royal, located at the time on Bridges Street in London, burns down.[1] A replacement structure is built on Drury Lane in 1674Willem, Prince of Orange, the 21-year-old Stadtholder of Gelderland and Utrecht, is approved by the States General of the Dutch Republic to command the Dutch States Army for the impending war with EnglandCharles II of England issues the Royal Declaration of Indulgence, suspending execution of Penal Laws against Protestant nonconformists and Roman Catholics in his realms;[3] this will be withdrawn the following year under pressure from the Parliament of EnglandAt the Synod of Jerusalem, presided over by Dositheos II of Jerusalem, the 68 bishops and representatives from the whole of Eastern Orthodox Christendom close by approving the Orthodox dogma against the challenge of Protestantism, declaring against "the falsehoods of the adversaries which they have devised against the Eastern Church" and making a goal of "reformation of their innovations and for their return to the catholic and apostolic church in which their forefathers also were."John Maitland becomes Duke of Lauderdale and Earl of MarchMünster and Cologne begin their invasion of the Dutch Republic; hence 1672 becomes known as het rampjaar ("the disaster year") in the NetherlandsBattle of SolebayFrench forces under King Louis XIV cross the Rhine into the Netherlands; the city of Utrecht is occupied by the French ArmyWilliam III of Orange is appointed Stadtholder of Holland and ZeelandJohan de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland and his brother Cornelis de Witt are killed by an Orangist mob in The HagueWilliam III of Orange, Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, dismisses nine of the regenten who lead cities in the Netherlands, after being granted authority by the States-GeneralIn India, Admiral Mai Nayak Bhandari of the Maratha Empire captures the island of KhanderiThe Board of Trade is created in England by a merger of the Council of Trade and the Council of Foreign Plantations, both of which had been created by King Charles II in 1660, under the name The Board of Trade and Plantations. The Earl of Shaftesbury is appointed as the first Lord of Trade, administering the Board until its dissolution in 1676General Raimondo Montecuccoli, commander of the army of the Holy Roman Empire, joins forces with the Brandenburg troops commanded by Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg and the two groups assemble at Halberstadt, to attack the French and the bishops of Münster and CologneManuel de Cendoya, Spain's Governor of Florida, breaks ground for the construction of the Castillo de San Marcos, a masonry fortress designed to protect St. Augustine.[7] Governor Cendoya follows on November 9 with the ceremonial laying for the first stone for the foundationThe Treaty of Buchach, between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, is signedFive-year-old Sikandar Adil Shah is enthroned as the last Sultan of Bijapur (located in southwestern India in what is now the Karnataka state) upon the death of his father, the Sultan Ali Adil Shah II. In 1686, the sultanate of Bijapur is conquered and annexed by the Mughal EmpireAfter more than five years of administration of the Treasury of England by a five-member commission, Lord Clifford of Chudleigh, one of the commission members, becomes the Lord High Treasurer of EnglandHedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp ends her regency of the Swedish Empire after more than 12 years, having exercised power in the name of her minor son, Charles XI, since the death of her husband Karl X Gustav in 1660. Hedwig Eleonora had served as the chair of the six-member Regency CouncilAn English invasion force captures the Caribbean island of Tobago from Dutch colonists and destroys the settlementFrench astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini discovers Rhea, a previously-unknown satellite of the planet Saturn. Rhea is the second-largest overall, and the third moon of Saturn to be discovered by Earth astronomers, Titan having been found by Christiaan Huygens on March 25, 1655 and Iapetus by Cassini on October 25, 1671Troops of the Dutch Republic, under the command of Carl von Rabenhaupt, are able to reclaim lost territory for the first time in the Third Anglo-Dutch War, liberating Coevorden, which had been forced to surrender to France on July 1. The moment, a boost for morale in what is remembered in Dutch history as the Rampjaar (the "Disaster Year"), is later memorialized in a painting by Pieter Wouwerman, The Storming of CoevordenImpostor Mary Carleton is hanged at Newgate Prison in London, for multiple thefts and returning from penal transportationMolière's comédie-ballet The Imaginary Invalid premiers in Paris. During the fourth performance, on February 17, the playwright, playing the title rôle, collapses on stage, dying soon afterRoman Catholics and others who refuse to receive the sacrament of the Church of England cannot vote, hold public office, preach, teach, attend the universities or assemble for meetings in England. On June 12, the king's Catholic brother, James, Duke of York, is forced to resign the office of Lord High Admiral because of the ActCadmus et Hermione, the first opera written by Jean-Baptiste Lully, premières at the Paris Opera in FranceIn America, trader Louis Joliet and Jesuit missionary-explorer Jacques Marquette begin exploring the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes1st Battle of Schooneveld2nd Battle of SchooneveldFrench explorers Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet reach the headwaters of the Mississippi River, and descend to ArkansasFrench troops conquer MaastrichtThe Netherlands and Denmark sign a defense treatyIn the American colonies, a Dutch battle fleet of 23 ships demands the surrender of New YorkDutch forces under Admiral Cornelis Evertsen de Jonge recapture New York from the English; the city is known as New Orange until regained by the English in 1674Battle of TexelLeopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, Spain, Netherlands and the Lutherans form an anti-French covenantWilliam, Prince of Orange occupies Naarden, NetherlandsKintai Bridge is officially completed in Iwakuni, Suō Province (modern-day Yamaguchi Prefecture), JapanKing Charles II of England removes Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, from his position as Lord ChancellorBattle of KhotynDutch troops commanded by Raimondo Montecuccoli and William, Prince of Orange conquer BonnChristopher Wren is knighted in EnglandJames, Duke of York, marries Mary of Modena;[4] they meet for the first time immediately before the ceremony in DoverPedro Nuño Colón de Portugal dies only five days after arriving in Mexico City to take office as the new viceroy of New Spain. He is replaced on December 13 by Payo Enríquez de Rivera, the former Roman Catholic Archbishop of MexicoKing Louis XIV of France issues a decree recognizing the legitimacy of (and giving royal titles to) the three children whom he had sired through his mistress, the Marquise de Montespan: Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine; Louis César, Count of Vexin; and Louise Françoise de Bourbon, Princess of CondéThe French West India Company is dissolved after less than 10 yearsIn the Chinese Empire, General Wu Sangui leads troops into the Giuzhou province, and soon takes control of the entire territory without a lossThe Earl of Arlington, a member of the English House of Commons, is impeached on charges of popery, but the Commons rejects the motion to remove him from office, 127 votes for and 166 againstThe tragic opera Alceste, by Jean-Baptiste Lully, is performed for the first time, presented by the Paris Opera company at the Theatre du Palais-Royal in ParisEngland and the Netherlands sign the Treaty of Westminster, ending the Third Anglo-Dutch War. Its provisions come into effect gradually (see November 10)Battle of Ronas VoeIn India, Shivaji Bhonsale, the Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire, captures the Kenjalgad Fort in what is now the Maharashtra stateIn the Netherlands, the jurisdiction of Willem, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland (on the west coast, including Amsterdam and Rotterdam) and Zeeland (southwest coast, including Middelburg, Zeeland), increases in the Dutch Republic as his followers in the inland States of Utrecht (Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel) designate him as the hereditary stadtholder. In 1689, he becomes the King of England in addition to his role as the Stadtholder of the NetherlandsJohn III Sobieski is elected by the nobility, as King of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (to 1696)Shivaji is crowned as Chatrapati Shivaji of the Maratha Empire at Raigad Fort in IndiaThe British East India Company arranges a commercial treaty with the Maratha Empire after Henry Oxenden, the company's deputy governor, meets Emperor Shivaji for his recent coronationIn a major battle in the Third Anglo-Dutch War, a large fleet of 18 warships from the Dutch Republic, along with 15 troop transports, nine storeships and 3,400 soldiers, arrives at the island of Martinique in the Caribbean Sea for the purpose of invasion and capture of Martinique from the French colonists. Admiral Michiel de Ruyter, commander of the Dutch forces, waits for four days before coming ashore. The French defenders, under the direction of the Governor, Antoine André de Sainte-Marthe, take advantagTwo skeletons of children are discovered by workmen repairing a staircase at the White Tower (Tower of London), and believed at this time to be the remains of the Princes in the Tower. The urns containing the bones are interred in 1678 in Westminster Abbey, with an inscription in Latin that states "Here lie interred the remains of Edward V, King of England, and Richard, Duke of York, whose long desired and much sought after bones, after over a hundred and ninety years, were found interred deep beneath the rBattle of SeneffeSukjong of the Joseon Dynasty, age 13, becomes the new Emperor of Korea upon the death of his father, the Emperor Hyeonjong. Sukjong reigns for more than 45 years until his death on July 12, 1720French Navy Commander Jean-Baptiste de Valbelle arrives at Sicily during the Messina revolt to help the Messinese expel the last Spanish defenders, taking the fort at Faro in the harbor entranceBattle of EntzheimThe Torsåker witch trials begin in the Torsåker Parish in Sweden, with over 100 men and women accused of witchcraft and the abduction of children. On June 1, 1675, the mass beheading of the 71 people convicted takes place at Häxberget, 65 of whom are women.[7][8] The others are two men and four boysAs provided in the Treaty of Westminster of February 19, the Dutch Republic cedes its colony of New Netherland to England. This includes the colonial capital, New Orange, which is returned to its English name of New York. The colonies of Surinam, Essequibo and Berbice remain in Dutch handsFather Jacques Marquette, along with Pierre Poteret and Jacque Poteret, sails southward along the shore of Lake Michigan, accompanied by nine canoes of Indians from the Potawatomi tribe, and comes ashore at what is now Chicago. The three missionaries, the first Europeans to explore the area, camp there for the winter. Marquette notes in his journal "The land bordering it is of now value, except on the prairies," and adds "There are eight to ten quite fine rivers.Battle of TurckheimJohn Sassamon, an English-educated Native American Christian, dies at Assawampsett Pond, an event which will trigger a year-long war between the English American colonists of New England, and the Algonquian Native American tribesThe Italian opera La divisione del mondo, by Giovanni Legrenzi, is performed for the first time, premiering in Venice at the Teatro San Luca. The new opera, telling the story of the "division of the world" after the battle between the Gods of Olympus and the Titans, becomes known for its elaborate and expensive sets, machinery, and special effects and is revived 325 years later in the year 2000Nicolò Sagredo is elected as the new Doge of Venice and leader of the Venetian Republic, replacing Domenico II Contarini, who had died 10 days earlierFrench Army Marshal Louis Victor de Rochechouart, Count of Vivonne, reinforces the rebels in the Messina revolt with eight additional warships and three fireships to bring to 20 the number of ships that France has against the 15 warships of Spain, and breaks the Spanish blockade that had prevented food from reaching MessinaNetherlands scientist Christiaan Huygens files drawings of his invention of the balance spring, the key component to the accuracy of portable clocks and pocket watches, in a letter to the Journal des SçavantsJohn Flamsteed is appointed by King Charles II as England's "astronomical observator", in effect, becoming the first Astronomer RoyalEngland's first royal yacht, HMY Mary, strikes rocks off of the coast of Anglesey while traveling from Dublin to Chester with 74 passengers and crew, and quickly sinks, with the loss of 35 people.[3] The other 39 are able to get to safety. The wreckage is not discovered until almost 300 years later, on July 11, 1971The guild organisation Maîtresses couturières is founded in ParisKing Charles II of England suspends Parliament after just nine weeks when the members refuse to vote additional funding to himAn uprising by the Chahars in the Chinese Empire region of Inner Mongolia, led by brothers Abunai Khan and Lubuzung Khan with 3,000 followers, is harshly put down by Imperial troops of the Manchu dynasty. Survivors of the battle, part of the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, are put to deathLê Hy Tông becomes the new Emperor of Vietnam at the age of 12, after being appointed as a figurehead by the warlord Trịnh Tạc upon the death of Lê Gia TôngColonial authorities of Rhode Island, Plymouth, and Massachusetts attempt a negotiation with Metacomet (King Philip), leader of the Wampanoags, and seek guarantees of fidelity from the Nipmuck and Narragansett tribes. The negotiations end after 11 days, closing on June 25Reconstruction of St Paul's Cathedral begins in London under the direction of Christopher Wren, to replace that the portion destroyed by the Great Fire of London nine years earlierThe Wampanoag warriors begin a three-day assault on English colonial towns in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in North America, with an assault on the villages of Rehoboth and Taunton. At the same time, Massachusetts troops march to Swansea, to join the Plymouth Colony troops. The warriors elude colonial troops and leave Mount Hope for Pocasset, Massachusetts. The Mohegan tribe travels to Boston, in order to assist the English colonists against the WampanoagsBattle of FehrbellinThe Narragansett tribe signs a peace treaty with ConnecticutKing Charles II of England places the foundation stone of the Royal Greenwich Observatory near London; construction beginsThe Massachusetts Council orders that Christian Indians are to be confined to designated praying townsEnglish colonists abandon Deerfield, Squakeag, and Brookfield due to a coalition of Indian attacksThe Narragansetts sign a treaty with the English in Boston; meanwhile, Massachusetts troops are ambushed near Northampton, MassachusettsIn England, a fire destroys most of the town of Northampton. According to a contemporary account, "the market place (which was a very goodly one), the stately church of Allhallows, 2 other parish churches and above three-fourth parts of the whole town was consumed and laid in ashesThe Pocomtuc tribe attacks and destroys the English settlement at Springfield, MassachusettsThe Massachusetts Council convenes and agrees that all Christian Indians should be ordered to move to Deer IslandCommissioners of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the Plymouth Colony (which are later merged into Massachusetts) begin a 10-day discussion on organizing a united force to attack the Narragansett tribeGottfried Leibniz makes the earliest known use of infinitesimal calculus in the breaking down of a functionThe Great Swamp FightFeodor III becomes Tsar of RussiaAfter the Nipmuc tribe attacks Lancaster, Massachusetts, colonist Mary Rowlandson is taken captive, and lives with the Indians until MayMetacomet and his Wampanoags attack Northampton, Massachusetts; meanwhile, the Massachusetts Council debates whether a wall should be erected around BostonWhile the Massachusetts Council debates how to handle the Christian Indians they had exiled to Deer Island on October 13, 1675, a coalition of Indians led by Metacomet attacks colonial settlements just 16 km (9.9 mi) outside of BostonProvidence, Rhode Island is attacked and destroyed by Native AmericansChief Canonchet of the Narragansett people is captured by mercenaries of the Pequot, Mohegan and Niantic nations who have been hired by English settlers. He is offered a chance to live if he makes peace with the English, refuses, and is executed the next day in Stonington, ConnecticutRichard Raynsford becomes the new Lord Chief Justice of England and WalesThe Sudbury FightBattle of AugustaMary Rowlandson is ransomed from captivity by Native Americans by a subscription raised by women of BostonPeskeomskut MassacreA fire destroys the town hall and 624 houses in Southwark, LondonThe Massachusetts Council finally decides to move the Christian Indians from Deer Island to Cambridge, Massachusetts (approximate date)Battle of ÖlandThe Indian coalition attacks Hadley, Massachusetts, but are repelled by Connecticut troopsMassachusetts issues a declaration of amnesty to any Indian who surrendersMajor John Talcott and his troops begin sweeping Connecticut and Rhode Island, capturing large numbers of Native Americans from Algonquian tribes and exporting them out of the English colonies as slavesCaptain Benjamin Church and his soldiers begin sweeping Plymouth Colony, for any remaining Wampanoag tribesmenThe Wampanoags attack Taunton, Massachusetts, but are repelled by colonistsIn France, Madame de Brinvilliers is executed for poisoning her father and brothers. The case also scares King Louis XIV into starting a series of investigations about possible poisonings and witchcraft (later called the Affair of the Poisons)Nearly 200 Nipmuc tribesmen surrender to the English colonists in BostonVirginia colonist Nathaniel Bacon and his makeshift army issue a Declaration of the People of Virginia, instigating Bacon's Rebellion against the rule of Governor William BerkeleyCaptain Benjamin Church captures Metacomet's wife and sonKing Philip (Metacomet), chief of the Wampanoags that had waged a war throughout southern New England that bore his name, is killed by an Indian named Alderman, a soldier led by Captain Benjamin ChurchBattle of HalmstadThe Irish Donation of 1676 is shipped from Dublin, to relieve Boston in the Massachusetts Bay ColonyThe Treaty of Żurawno is signed, between the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire and Polish–Lithuanian CommonwealthA fire in Boston, Massachusetts, is accidentally set by a careless and sleepy apprentice, who drops a lighted candle, or leaves it too near some combustible substance; this is the largest fire known at this time in the district. The Rev. Increase Mather’s church, dwelling and a portion of his personal library are destroyedBattle of LundSands baronets created in the Baronetage of IrelandThe first medical publication in America (a pamphlet on smallpox) is produced in BostonFour members of the English House of Lords embarrass King Charles II at the opening of the latest session of the "Cavalier Parliament" by proclaiming that the session is not legitimate because it hadn't met in more than a year. The Duke of Buckingham, backed by Lord Shaftesbury, Lord Salisbury and Baron Wharton, makes an unsuccessful motion to end the session. When the four Lords refuse to apologize, they are arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of LondonThe first arrests are made in the case that will develop into the "Affair of the Poisons" in France, as Magdelaine de La Grange and her accused accomplice, Father Nail, are detained on suspicion of poisoning her lover, a Messr. Faurie.[1] While in prison in the Bastille and awaiting trial Mademoiselle La Grange writes letters accusing other persons of carrying out murders by poison as wellLeopold I, Holy Roman Emperor visits the University of InnsbruckBattle of CasselThe Statute of Frauds is passed into English lawThe Treaty of Middle Plantation establishes peace between the Virginia colonists and the local IndiansBattle of MønBattle of LandskronaWilliam of Orange, the leader of the Dutch Republic, is forced to end the siege of the Spanish Netherlands (modern-day Belgium) city of Charleroi after six daysDuring war between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, Russian troops led by Grigory Romodanovsky and Ukrainian Cossacks led by Ivan Samoylovych arrive at the besieged Ukrainian city of Chigirin (modern-day Chyhyryn) and inflict heavy casualties on the encamped Turkish and Tatar troopsHenry Purcell is appointed a musician to the court of Charles II of EnglandTroops from Denmark invade and capture the Swedish island of Rügen and drive out the local population. Five months later, on January 18, 1678, Sweden recaptures the island. Nine months later, troops from Denmark and Brandenburg invade for a third time and capture the island again on October 22, 1678. Eight months later, Denmark is given the island back under a treaty ending the Swedish-Brandenburg War on June 29, but by then, the island of Rügen is in ruins. In modern times, the island becomes a vacation reEmperor Kangxi of China grants titles and ranks to all of his wives, and names Empress Xiaozhaoren as his consortMichel le Tellier becomes Chancellor of FranceThe future Mary II of England marries William of Orange in LondonFrench troops occupy FreiburgFather Louis Hennepin of Belgium, exploring North America, becomes the earliest known European person to discover Niagara Falls, and the first to report its existence. In his book A New Discovery of a Vast Country in America, published in 1698, Hennepin writes "Betwixt the lakes Ontario and Eire there is a vast prodigious Cadence of water which falls down after a surprising and astonishing manner, inasmuch that the Universe does not afford its parallelThe French Navy, led by Charles de Courbon de Blénac with a land force of 950 men, lands at the Caribbean island of Tobago, lays siege to the Dutch fort defending the territory during the Franco-Dutch War, and destroys the structure when it fires a cannon overlooking the fort, striking the gunpowder arsenal. The explosion kills 250 of the defenders, including Dutch Admiral Jacob Binckes and 16 officers. Combined with the sinking of four ships of the Netherlands Navy, the victory at Tobago ends Dutch militarThe Siege of Stettin (the modern-day Polish city of Szczecin but, at this time, a possession of Sweden) ends after almost five months with Sweden's surrender of the city to Prussia's Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. The siege, part of the Scanian War, had begun on June 25England and the Dutch Republic sign a mutual defense treaty in order to fight against FranceThe first fire engine company (in what will become the United States) goes into service in BostonThe first part of English nonconformist preacher John Bunyan's Christian allegory, The Pilgrim's Progress, is published in LondonThomas Shadwell's comedy A True Widow is given its first performance, at The Duke's Theatre in London, staged by the Duke's CompanyRebel Chinese general Wu Sangui takes the imperial crown, names himself monarch of "The Great Zhou", based in the Hunan report, with Hengyang as his capital. He contracts dysentery over the summer and dies on October 2, ending the rebellion against the Kangxi EmperorThe nova V529 Orionis is discovered by Poland astronomer Jan Heweliusz, referred to in history as Johannes HeveliusThe Treaty of Casco Bay is signed between officials of the Province of New York and the Penobscot tribe and the Wabanaki Confederacy, bringing an end to further fighting that had happened in the two years since the end of King Philip's War in the modern-day U.S. state of Maine. Under the terms of the treaty, English settlers pay rent to the Penobscots and are given back farmland that had been confiscated in the war, while the English settlers agree to respect the Penobscot land rightsFrench admiral Jean d'Estrees runs his whole fleet aground in either the Las Aves Archipelago or Isla de Aves, intending to reach CuraçaoFrench buccaneer Michel de Grammont arrives at Spanish-held Venezuela with six pirate ships, 13 smaller craft, and 2,000 men in a daring raid on the South American territory, then leads half of his force inward toward Maracaibo, which he takes on June 14. During the rest of the month, he and his soldiers march inland as far as Trujillo. Grammont and his pirates finally depart on December 3Battle of OrtenbachRobert LaSalle builds the Le Griffon, the first ship to sail on the Great Lakes of North AmericaThe Treaties of Nijmegen end the Franco-Dutch War. The County of Burgundy is ceded to the Kingdom of FranceTitus Oates begins to present allegations of the Popish Plot, a supposed Roman Catholic conspiracy to assassinate king Charles II of England. Oates applies the term Tory to those who disbelieve his allegationsThe Franco-Dutch War between France against the Dutch Republic and Dutch allies, comes to an end after more than six years as the Treaties of Nijmegen bring about a ceasefireEnglish magistrate Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey is found murdered in Primrose Hill, London.[17] His death is seen as proof of the plot to the publicEngland's House of Commons votes to begin impeachment proceedings against five Roman Catholic members of the House of Lords, Viscount Stafford, the Marquess of Powis, Baron Arundell, Baron Petre and Baron Belasyse accused by Protestant members as participating in a "Popish Plot". Viscount Stafford is convicted and executed, while the other four are imprisoned in the Tower of London for more than five yearsWilliam Staley, an English banker and a Roman Catholic, becomes the first person to be executed in connection with the Popish Plot arrestsThe Test Act provides that members of both the House of Lords and House of Commons of England must swear an anti-Catholic oath, before taking officeKing Charles II of England dissolves the "Cavalier Parliament", after nearly 18 yearsThe Treaty of Celle is signed between France and Sweden on one side, and the Holy Roman Empire, at the town of Celle in Saxony (now in Germany). Sweden's sovereignty over Bremen-Verden is confirmed and Sweden cedes control of Thedinghausen and Dörverden to the GermansIn England, the "Habeas Corpus Parliament" (or "First Exclusion Parliament") is opened.[1] It adjourns on May 27. On July 12, while in recess, the parliament is dissolved. by royal prerogative, to prevent it from passing a bill excluding the king's brother, the Catholic James, Duke of York, from the succession to the English throne, as part of the Exclusion CrisisCatherine Deshayes Monvoisin, commonly called "La Voisin" and the suspected killer of over 1,000 people in France by poisoning, is arrested outside of the Church of Notre-Dame-de-Bonne-Nouvelle in Paris and imprisoned at Vincennes for the next 11 months. After her conviction, she is publicly burned at the stake on February 22, 1680James Sharp, the Church of Scotland's Archbishop of St Andrews, is assassinated at Magus Muir in Fife, when his coach is ambushed by a group of nine of the Scottish Covenanters. Only two of the assassins, David Hackston and Andrew Guillan, are capturedThe Parliament of England passes the Habeas Corpus Act, "for the better securing the liberty of the subject" and then adjournsBattle of DrumclogBattle of Bothwell BridgeIn England, the "Habeas Corpus Parliament" (or "First Exclusion Parliament") is dissolved, while in recess, by King Charles II. The King exercises his royal prerogative of dissolution to prevent the parliament from passing a bill that would exclude non-Anglicans from the succession to the English throne, specifically the king's Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York, as part of the Exclusion CrisisThe brigantine Le Griffon, commissioned by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, is towed to the southern end of the Niagara River, to become the first ship to sail the upper Great LakesThe Province of New Hampshire is separated from the Massachusetts Bay ColonyRepresentatives of the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of Sweden sign the last of the nine Treaties of Nijmegen, ending the last of the conflicts that began during the Franco-Dutch WarA sea battle is fought between England's Royal Navy and the navy of India's Maratha Empire (under the command of Mai Nayak Bhandari), with English bombardment driving the Maratha occupation of the island fortress at Khanderi (off of the western Indian coast south of Mumbai)A fire in Boston, Massachusetts, burns all of the warehouses, 80 houses, and all of the ships in the dockyardsFrench explorers René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle (commonly called "La Salle") and Henri de Tonti set off from their fort near Niagara Falls in North America on the first European expedition to explore the upper Mississippi RiverMore than 200 captives on the ship The Crown of London, all Scottish Covenanters arrested after the battle of Bothwell Bridge, are killed when the ship is wrecked on the Orkney Islands while transporting the group to exile in North AmericaOliver Plunkett, the Roman Catholic Primate of All Ireland and Archbishop of Armagh, is arrested on false charges of plotting to aid a French invasion of the British Isles, the so-called "Popish Plot". Executed in 1681, Plunkett will be canonized as a Roman Catholic saint almost 300 years later in 1975William Harris, one of the four English Puritans who established the Plymouth Colony and then the Providence Plantations at Rhode Island in 1636, is captured by Algerian pirates, when his ship is boarded while he is making a voyage back to England. After being sold into slavery on February 23, he remains a slave until ransom is paid. He dies in 1681, three days after his return to EnglandThe Marquis de Croissy, Charles Colbert, becomes France's Minister of Foreign Affairs and serves for 16 years until his death, when he is succeeded as Foreign Minister by his son Jean-Baptiste ColbertRev. Ralph Davenant's will provides for foundation of the Davenant Foundation School for poor boys in Whitechapel, in the East End of LondonCatherine Deshayes Monvoisin, a fortune teller in France who organized a ring of killers in what became known as the "Affair of the Poisons" that killed at least 1,000 people, is burned at the stake after being convicted of witchcraft. In all, 36 people are executed for their role in the poisoningThe German Duchy of Saxe-Coburg is divided by treaty among the sons of the late Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha, who had died in 1675. The oldest son, Frederick, receives Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. The rest is divided among Albert (Duke of Saxe-Coburg); Bernhard (Saxe-Meiningen); Henry (Saxe-Römhild); Christian (Saxe-Eisenberg); Ernest (Saxe-Hildburghausen); and John Ernest (Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld)The Earl of Shaftesbury informs the Privy Council of England that the Roman Catholics of Ireland were about to launch a rebellion, backed by France. The investigation leads to the arrest and ultimate execution of the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh, Oliver PlunkettThe London Penny Post delivery service begins operations after being created by Robert Murray and William Dockwra, with a policy of delivering letters to any part of London or its suburbs for the price of one English pennyThe first French Huguenots in the New World arrive at Charleston, South Carolina, as 45 of the religious exiles arrive at Oyster Point on the ship Richmond, after being sent there by King Charles II of EnglandKing Charles XI of Sweden marries Princess Elonora, daughter of the late King Frederick III of Denmark-Norway and sister of King Christian VTokugawa Tsunayoshi becomes the new Shōgun of Japan upon the death of his older brother, Tokugawa Ietsuna, who had been shōgun for 29 yearsEngland and Spain sign a mutual defense treatyThe Sanquhar Declaration, written by Richard Cameron, leader of the Covenanters who oppose the control of religion in Scotland by King Charles, is read aloud by Richard's brother Michael Cameron at the public square in the village of Sanquhar in DumfriesshireDuring the Spanish Inquisition, an auto-da-fé takes place in the Plaza Mayor, MadridA Pueblo medicine man named Popé begins an attack by the Puebloans and their Apache allies on Spanish outposts throughout what the modern-day U.S. state of New Mexico, choosing the campaign to begin before a supply caravan can reach the SpaniardsThe settlement of Karlskrona in Sweden is founded,as the Royal Swedish Navy relocates thereIn the Pueblo Revolt, the native Pueblo people capture Santa Fe (now in New Mexico) from the Spanish colonistsComédie-Française is founded by decree of Louis XIV of France as La maison de Molière in ParisA four month truce between England and Morocco expires and the Alcaid Omar, Viceroy of Morocco, begins a bombardment of the English fort at TangierA treaty is concluded between the Dutch Republic and the Ottoman Empire for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and his subjects to apply Dutch law to Dutch visitors to Ottoman territorySpanish troops make a counterattack on Santa Fe in the modern-day U.S. state of New Mexico, allowing the remaining Spanish troops in the besieged city to flee to El Paso (now in Texas)Robert Boyle, having rediscovered the process of manufacturing phosphorus from bone ash, deposits his summary of the directions with The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge. Boyle's assistant, Ambrose Godfrey, later develops Boyle's discovery to produce phosphorus commerciallyAt the request of King Charles XI of Sweden, the Riksdag in Sweden enacts the Great Reduction, returning fiefs which had been granted to the Swedish nobility to the Crown. The nation becomes an absolute monarchy under the rule of CharlesThe Great Comet of 1680 is first sighted by Gottfried Kirch, the first comet discovered by telescopeThe Green Ribbon Club, a predecessor of the British Whigs, organizes a procession to burn an effigy of the Pope in London for the second year runningThe trial for treason of William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford before his fellow members of the House of Lords having concluded after seven days, the Lords vote on whether to convict him of the articles of impeachment. The Lords vote, 55 to 31 to convict him and to impose the death sentence and Lord Stafford is beheaded on 29 December (8 January 1681 N.S.)The Treaty of Bakhchisarai is signed, between the Ottoman vassal Crimean Khanate and the Russian EmpireThe "Exclusion Bill Parliament", summoned by King Charles II of England in October, is dissolved after three months, with directions that new elections be held, and that a new parliament be convened in March in OxfordKing Charles II of England grants a land charter to William Penn, for the area that will later become PennsylvaniaThe "Oxford Parliament" is summoned in England by King Charles II and meets in Oxford rather than in Westminster, but is dissolved seven days later. No further sessions of parliament are held until after the death of Charles in 1685Following the death of its last count, the Palatinate-Landsberg passes to the King of SwedenThe Canal du Midi in France is opened officially, as the Canal Royal de LanguedocOliver Plunkett, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland, falsely convicted in June of treason, is hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn, London, the last Catholic martyr to die in England;[2] he is canonised in 1975The Bombardment of Chios during the French-Tripolitania War (1681-1685) is part of a wider campaign by France against the Barbary Pirates in the 1680sEnglish perjurer Titus Oates is told to leave his state apartments in Whitehall; his fame begins to wane, and he is soon arrested and imprisoned for seditionFrance annexes the city of Strasbourg (German: Strassburg), previously a free imperial city of the Holy Roman EmpireSir John Child of England becomes the new Governor of Bombay province and, unofficially, Governor-General of all of the settlements of the East India Company in India. With the exception of a rebellion by Captain Richard Keigwin during the year 1684, Child expands British control until involving the British in a war with the Mughal EmpireCornelis Speelman of the Netherlands becomes the new Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) and concludes an alliance with the Sultan Amangkurat II of the Mataram Sultanate on the island of Java, then uses the Dutch Army to suppress the rebellion started by the Sultan's half-brother, Prince Puger. Puger surrenders on November 28 to the ranking Dutch officer, Jacob CouperWu Shifan, grandson of Chinese general Wu Sangui, commits suicide at Kunming in Yunnan province, ending the 8-year Revolt of the Three Feudatories against the Kangxi Emperor and the Qing dynasty in ChinaKing Charles II of England signs a warrant for the building of the Royal Hospital Chelsea in London for wounded and retired soldiersThe Republic of Genoa forbids the unauthorized printing of newspapers and all handwritten newssheets; the ban is lifted after three monthsScottish minister James Renwick, one of the Covenanters resisting the Scottish government's suppression of alternate religious views, publishes the Declaration of LanarkThe Ottoman Empire army is mobilized in preparation for a war against Austria that culminates with the 1683 Battle of ViennaThe first public theater in Brussels, the Opéra du Quai au Foin, is openedIn Japan, on the 28th day of the 12th month in the year Tenna 1, a major fire sweeps through Edo (now TokyoWork begins on construction of the Royal Hospital Chelsea for old soldiers in London, EnglandA fire breaks out in Newmarket, Suffolk, consuming half the town and spreading into sections of surrounding Cambridgeshire. Historian Laurence Echard describes it later as "A Providential Fire", noting that King Charles II "by the approach of the fury of the flames was immediately driven out of his own palace", and, after moving to safety in another section of town, was forced to flee again "when the wind, as conducted by an invisible power, suddenly changed about, and blew the smoke and cinders directly onRené-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, exploring rivers in America, reaches the mouth of the Mississippi RiverAt the mouth of the Mississippi River, near modern Venice, Louisiana, Robert de La Salle buries an engraved plate and a cross, claiming the territory as La Louisiane for FranceLouis XIV of France moves his court to VersaillesUpon the death of the Tsar Feodor III of Russia, Feodor's younger brother, 15-year-old Ivan is passed over in favor of a half-brother, 10-year-old PeterThe English trading freighter Johanna is wrecked off of the coast of South Africa with the loss of 10 of her 114 crew, becoming the first of Britain's East India Company fleet to be lostIvan V and Peter I are crowned as joint Tsars of Russia at the Cathedral of the Dormition in Moscow, with actual power exercised by their older sister, Sophia Alekseyevna for the next seven yearsThe Ottoman Empire declares war on the Holy Roman Empire and makes plans to attack ViennaFollowing the Bideford witch trial, three women (probably) become the penultimate known to be hanged for witchcraft in England, at ExeterTrinh Can becomes the new ruler of Tonkin (located in the northern part of Vietnam as far south as the Ha Tinh province upon the death of his father, Trinh Tac, and begins a program of reformsSultan Mehmed IV departs Istanbul for AdrianopleKara Mustafa departs with the Ottoman army to AdrianopleThe city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania is founded by William PennNearly 1,000 houses in Wapping, London are destroyed in a fireWilliam Penn meets with Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore for the first discussion of the boundary between the colonies of Pennsylvania and Maryland, fixed at 40 degrees north. Recognizing that 40° north would remove Pennsylvania's access to the sea, Penn proposes a purchase of some of Maryland's territoryColonists from the German electorate of Brandenburg arrive at Akwidaa on the Brandenburger Gold Coast at what is now Ghana and, five days later, begin building a fort at what is now Princes TownThe Brandenburger—African Company, of the German state of Brandenburg, signs a treaty with representatives of the Ahanta tribe (in what is now Ghana), to establish the fort and settlement of Groß Friedrichsburg, in honor of Frederick William, Elector of BrandenburgThe tragic opera Phaëton, written by Jean-Baptiste Lully and Philippe Quinault, is premiered at the Palace of VersaillesGove's RebellionAgeng Tirtayasa, Sultan of Banten on the island of Java (now part of Indonesia), is captured by the soldiers hired by the Dutch East India CompanyAuthorized representatives of King John III Sobieski of Poland and Emperor Leopold I of the Holy Roman Empire sign a military alliance treaty in WarsawCharles V, Duke of Lorraine is appointed commander of the Imperial Army of the Holy Roman EmpireSultan Mehmed IV of the Ottoman Empire enters BelgradeThe Rye House Plot to assassinate Charles II of England is discoveredAdmiral Shi Lang of Qing dynasty China leads 300 ships with 20,000 troops out of Tongshan, Fujian, and sails towards the Kingdom of Tungning, in modern-day Taiwan and Penghu, in order to quell the kingdom in the name of the QingA 173,000-man Ottoman force arrives at Vienna, and starts to besiege the cityThe gruesome execution of Lord Russell, for his role in the 1683 Rye House Plot to assassinate King Charles II of England, is carried out by the royal executioner Jack Ketch, who wields his axe in a manner requiring multiple blows to make Russell suffer as much as possible during the beheadingTurhan, in the powerful role of the Valide sultan of the Ottoman Empire since 1648 as the mother of Sultan Mehmed IV, dies at the age of 56, bringing an end to the era in Ottoman history known as the "Sultanate of Women". Upon the overthrow of Mehmed IV four years later, the role of the mother of the Ottoman Sultan is less powerfulThe Earl of Limerick, Irishman Thomas Dongan, takes office as the new British Colonial Governor of the Province of New York and makes major reforms to restore public order and rescue the province from bankruptcyQing Chinese admiral Shi Lang receives the formal surrender of Zheng Keshuang, ushering in the collapse of the Kingdom of Tungning, which is then incorporated into the Qing EmpirePedro II becomes the King of Portugal after having served as regent since 1668 for his older brother Afonso VIShi Lang reaches Taiwan and occupies modern-day KaohsiungLouis XIV of France makes a morganatic marriage with Madame de Maintenon in a secret ceremony following the death on July 30 of his queen consort, Maria Theresa of SpainThe English crown colony of the Province of New York is subdivided into 12 counties: Albany, Dutchess, Orange, Ulster, and Westchester (upstate); Kings, New York County, Queens, Richmond (within New York City); Suffolk (eastern Long Island), and two areas not in New York state, Dukes County (now in Massachusetts) and Cornwall County (now 11 counties in Maine)Algernon Sidney, opponent of King Charles II of England and author of the rebel tract Discourses Concerning Government is beheaded after having been arrested on June 25 and found guilty on November 7Kara Mustafa Pasha, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire since 1676, is executed on orders of Sultan Mehmed IV after being blamed for the Ottoman loss of the Battle of Vienna on September 12. The execution is carried out in Belgrade as Kara Mustafa is strangled with a silk cord. The Sultan appoints Bayburtlu Kara Ibrahim Pasha as the new Grand VizierRichard Keigwin leads a rebellion against the East India Company to take over as Governor of Bombay and most of the British territory in India, driving out Governor Sir John Child and arresting the Deputy Governor, Charles Ward. Keigwin surrenders the office less than a year laterKing Charles II of England gives the title Duke of St Albans to Charles Beauclerk, his illegitimate son by Nell GwynMorocco retakes control of the city of Tangier from England, which had controlled the North African port since 1661.[5] During the five months prior to evacuation of the English from the city, the Governor, Lord Dartmouth had ordered the destruction of the wall around the city, its fortifications and port facilities that had been built by the English during the occupationThe Great Frost in Britain, during which the River Thames was frozen in London and the sea as far as 2 miles (3.2 km) out from land and which started the previous December, ends as the Thames begins to thaw. William Maitland later writes that the Frost, which started in December 1683, "congealed the river Thames to that degree that another city, as it were, was erected thereon; where by the great number of streets and shops, with their rich furniture, it represented a great fair, with a variety of carriagesA treaty is signed between European German colonists in Brandenburg-Prussia, and the African chiefs at Ghana in what is now Ghana to permit the German colonists to build a second fort on the Brandenburger Gold Coast, and the fortress of Dorotheenschanze is built. The area is now the Ghanaian city of AkwidaPope Innocent XI forms a Holy League with the Habsburg Empire, Venice and Poland, to end Ottoman Turkish rule in EuropeIn Japan, the Tenna era ends on the 21st day of the 2nd month of the Chinese calendar of the 4th year of the Tenna era and the Jōkyō era begins as Japan's royal astronomer, Shibukawa Shunkai institutes the Jōkyō calendar to replace Chinese calendar which had been used in Japan since 859 AD, after calculating that the length of the solar year is 365.2417 daysFrancisco de Távora, the Viceroy of Portuguese India, a small colony located in southwestern India at Goa, issues an order prohibiting indigenous residents from speaking their native language, Konkani, and directs them to learn Portuguese within the next three yearsRené-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle sails again from France, with a large expedition designed to establish a French colony on the Gulf of Mexico, at the mouth of the Mississippi RiverFrance under Louis XIV makes the Truce of Ratisbon separately with the Holy Roman Empire (Habsburg) and SpainLouis XIV decrees the foundation of the Maison royale de Saint-Louis, a boarding school for girls at Saint-Cyr, at the urging of Madame de MaintenonThe Republic of Venice captures the fortress town of Preveza from the Ottoman EmpireJapanese Chief Minister Hotta Masatoshi is assassinated, leaving Shōgun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi without any adequate advisors, leading him to issue impractical edicts and create hardships for the Japanese peopleJames Renwick, a Scottish minister and one of the "Covenanters" challenging the attempt by Kings James VI and Charles I to take over churches in Scotland, posts his "Apologetical Declaration" on church doors and market crosses in and around Cambusnethan, LanarkshireRichard Keigwin, who had arrested the East India Company's Governor of Bombay in 1683, Josiah Child and had taken over as the unauthorized administrator of Bombay, turns control back to the company and its envoy, Sir Thomas Grantham, receiving a general pardonAmerican-born British citizen Elihu Yale, for whom Yale University in the U.S. is named, completes his term as the first leader of the Madras Presidency in India, administering the colony on behalf of the East India Company, and is succeeded by William GyffordAlmost 200 people are arrested in Coventry by English authorities for gathering to hear readings of the sermons of the non-conformist Protestant minister Obadiah GrewA treaty is signed between Brandenburg-Prussia and the indigenous chiefs at Takoradi in what is now Ghana to permit the German colonists to build a third fort on the Brandenburger Gold CoastCatholic James Stuart, Duke of York, becomes King James II of England and Ireland, and King James VII of Scotland, in succession to his brother Charles II (1660–1685), King of England, Scotland, and Ireland since 1660. James II and VII reigns until deposed, in 1688René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, intending to establish a colony near the mouth of the Mississippi River, lands with 200 surviving colonists at Matagorda Bay on the Texas coast, believing the Mississippi to be near. He establishes Fort St. LouisThe coronation of King James II of England (and his Queen Consort, Mary of Modena) takes place at Westminster AbbeyBattle on VrtijeljkaFive Covenanters in Wigtown, Scotland, notably Margaret Wilson, are executed for refusing to swear an oath declaring King James of England, Scotland and Ireland as head of the church, becoming the Wigtown martyrsJames Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, illegitimate son of King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland, lands at Lyme Regis with an invasion force brought from the Netherlands, to challenge his uncle, James II, for the Crown of EnglandJames, Duke of Monmouth declares himself at Taunton to be King, and heir to his father's Kingdoms as James II of England and Ireland, and James VII of ScotlandBattle of SedgemoorJames Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, is executed at Tower Hill, London, EnglandThe Republic of Venice captures the fortress of Koroni from the Ottoman Empire; its garrison is massacredThe Republic of Venice defeats an Ottoman army at KalamataThe first organised street lighting is introduced by the city of London in England, as Edward Hemming begins carrying out his contract to be paid for lighting an oil lamp "at every tenth house on main streets between 6 PM and midnight between September 29 and March 25" on nights in the autumn and winter without adequate moonlightLouis XIV of France issues the Edict of Fontainebleau, which revokes the Edict of Nantes and declares Protestantism illegal, thereby depriving Huguenots of civil rights. Their Temple de Charenton-le-Pont is immediately demolished and many flee to England, Prussia and elsewhereThe Edict of Potsdam is issued by Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg in response to France's Edict of Fontainebleau, welcoming the Protestant Huguenots of France to resettle in eastern Germany in Brandenburg. The French Colony of Magdeburg is established on December 1 in Saxony as a community separate from MagdeburgThe Republic of Venice captures the fortress town of Igoumenitsa from the Ottoman Empire, and razes it to the groundKing Charles XI of Sweden issues an order banning Jews from settling in Sweden, particularly in the capital at Stockholm "on account of the danger of the eventual influence of the Jewish religion on the pure evangelical faithIn Madras (now Chennai) in India, local residents employed by the East India Company threaten to boycott their jobs after corporate administrator William Gyfford imposes a house tax on residences within the city walls. Gyfford places security forces at all entrances to the city and threatens to banish anyone who fails to pay their taxes, as well as to confiscate the goods of merchants who refuse to make salesKing Louis XIV of France reports the success of the Edict of Fontainebleau, issued on October 22 against the Protestant Huguenots, and reports that after less than three months, the vast majority of the Huguenot population had left the countryIn Guatemala, Spanish Army Captain Melchor Rodríguez Mazariegos leads a campaign to conquer the indigenous Maya people in the rain forests of Lacandona, departing from Huehuetenango to rendezvous with the colonial governor at San Mateo IxtatánIn the wake of the success of France's campaign against Protestantism, Victor Amadeus II, the Duke of Savoy, issues an edict against the Valdesi, the Duchy's Protestant minority, setting a 15-day deadline for members of the Valdesi to publicly renounce their beliefs as erroneous, or face banishment or death. The February 15 deadline is ignoredAfter the Valdesi in the Duchy of Savoy decline to obey the edict to convert to Catholicism, Duke Victor Amadeus dispatches a force of 9,000 French and Piedmontese soldiers to enforce the edictSweden's Council of State endorses the reforms proposed by King Charles XI for the Swedish Church Law 1686, after having debated it in three sessions on February 18, 19 and 20. The law confirms and describes the rights of the Lutheran Church and confirms Sweden as a Lutheran state; all non-Lutherans are banned from immigration unless they convert to Lutheranism; the Romani people are to be incorporated to the Lutheran Church; the poor care law is regulated; and all parishes are forced by law to teach the chGabriel Milan, the controversial Governor of the Danish West Indies since 1684, is removed from office by order of King Frederick III and placed under arrest for treason. Three years later, after being found guilty in a trial after being brought back to Copenhagen, Milan is beheaded on March 26, 1689The Hudson Bay expeditionAs the Valdesi rebellion continues, the Duke of Savoy issues a second edict, giving the Protestant Valdesi eight days to lay down their arms and allows safe passage into exile for those who agreeIn the wake of Savoy's newest repression of the Protestant Valdesi, a third war breaks out and Protestant pastor Henri Arnaud leads the resistance with 3,000 rebel soldiers against 8,500 Savoyard soldiers and mercenaries. The Valdesi are overwhelmed within one monthThe Treaty of Perpetual Peace (1686) is signed between the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, recognizing the former's possession of Left-bank Ukraine and the city of Kiev, as agreed upon in the earlier Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667. The treaty also brings the Tsardom of Russia into the Great Turkish War, on the side of the Holy League of 1684Joseph Dudley formally begins his tenure, as President of the Council of the newly formed Dominion of New EnglandThe third war against the Protestant Valdesi ends. Soon afterward, 2,000 of the Valdesi are massacred, 8,500 taken prisoner and about 3,000 surviving civilians forcibly resettled and converted to CatholicismFrench Canadian soldiers on the Hudson Bay expedition capture the first of the British Hudson's Bay Company outposts, with the surrender the unarmed inhabitants of the fortress at Moose Factory, OntarioThe Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg) is founded, in response to claims made by Louis XIV of France on the Electorate of the Palatinate in western Germany. It comprises the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, Sweden, Spain, the electors of Bavaria, Saxony and the Electorate of the PalatinateKing James II of England appoints four Roman Catholics to the Privy Council of England in defiance of the Test Acts, which bar Catholics from public office. Suspicions about James's intentions lead to a group of conspirators meeting at Charborough House in Dorset, to plan his overthrow and replacement with the Protestant Dutch Stadtholder, William III of Orange-Nassau (James's son-in-law)Albany, New York, is granted a city charter by the colonial governorPortuguese soldiers hired by the East India Company mutiny rather than follow orders to join the war in Bengal. The ringleaders are quickly arrested and executed, and the mutiny endsChristina, who had ruled as the monarch of Sweden until her abdication in 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles, responds to the revocation in France of the Edict of Nantz and declares that Jews within Sweden will be under her protectionKing James VII of Scotland dismisses the Parliament of Scotland after the members refuse to remove restrictions on Roman Catholics and on Protestants outside of the Church of Scotland and the Church of England. The Parliament does not meet again for more than two and a half yearsSpanish troops attack and plunder the Scottish colony of Stuarts Town in the Province of Carolina (now Port Royal, South Carolina) and plunder the city. After three days, the Spaniards begin a march of over 75 miles (121 km) toward the larger port city of Charles TownThe Ottoman fortress of Sinj in Dalmatia falls to the army of the Republic of VeniceAs the Savoyard–Waldensian wars, draw to a close, the Duke of Savoy announces that the Protestant Valdisi defenders will be granted safe passage to Switzerland, and that children taken during the war will be allowed to return to their families. By January, a little more than 2,500 Valdisi take the offerSzeged, now the second largest city in Hungary, is liberated from Turkish Ottoman ruleThe Treaty of Whitehall, more formerly the Treaty of Neutrality for America, is signed at the Palace of Whitehall in Westminster between representatives of King Louis XIV of France and King James II of England, with both sides pledging that "though the two Countries might be at war in Europe their Colonies in America should continue in peace and Neutrality".[2The treaty is broken less than two years later when King William's War breaks out in what is now the U.S. state of MaineMelchor Portocarrero, 3rd Count of Monclova becomes the new Viceroy of New Spain (encompassing what is now Mexico and much of the southwestern United States) as he arrives in Mexico City to take over at the end of the term of Tomás de la Cerda, 3rd Marquess of la LagunaEdmund Andros arrives in Boston to become the British Governor of the newly-created Dominion of New England, which includes most of the what are now the U.S. states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Vermont and much of the eastern portion of New York. The unpopular Andros, who reigns as a dictator after being appointed by King James II, is driven out of office in 1689 after the overthrow of James, and the Dominion of New England is broken up into its constituent Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia, head of the House of Hohenzollern, enters into an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire, ruled by Emperor Charles VI of the Holy Roman Empire and head of the Austrian House of HabsburgWith the end of latest of the Savoyard–Waldensian wars in the Duchy of Savoy between the Savoyard government and Protestant Italians known as the Waldensians, Victor Amadeus III, Duke of Savoy, carries out the release of 3,847 surviving prisoners and their families, who had forcibly been converted to Catholicism, and permits the group to emigrate to SwitzerlandRichard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, is appointed as the last Lord Deputy of Ireland by the English crown, and begins efforts to include more Roman Catholic Irishmen in the administration. Upon the removal of King James II in England and Scotland, the Earl of Tyrconnell loses his job and is replaced by James, who reigns briefly as King of Ireland until William III establishes his rule over the isleIn one of the most sensational cases in England in the 17th century, midwife Mary Hobry murders her abusive husband, Denis Hobry, after he beats her up for the last time. Mary then dismembers his body and scatters the remains in a dunghill and in several outhouses (or privies) in the area. Despite a defense of justifiable homicide, Mary is convicted of murder and burned at the stakeThe Arjeplog blasphemy trial begins for Erik Eskilsson and Amund Thorsson, two practitioners of the Sami religion who had resisted Sweden's efforts at their conversion to Christianity. Eskilsson and Thorsson are acquitted of the charges after agreeing to convert to ChristianityIn India, troops under the command of Job Charnock of the East India Company, preparing to go to war against the Nawab of Bengal, Shaista Khan of the Mughal empire, destroy his fortresses located at ThanaThe Declaration of Indulgence is issued in Scotland by King James VII as one of the first steps in establishing freedom of religion in the British Isles, eliminating enforcement of criminal penalties against persons who failed to conform with Anglicanism. As King James II of England, he issues a similar declaration on April 4The men under explorer Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle mutiny, while searching for the mouth of the Mississippi River. Pierre Duhaut murders La Salle, near what is now Navasota, TexasKing James II of England issues the Declaration of Indulgence (or Declaration for the Liberty of Conscience), suspending laws against Roman Catholics and nonconformistsThe Spanish city of Guayaquil (now part of Ecuador) is attacked and looted by English and French pirates under the command of George Hout (English) and Pierre Le Picard and Francois Groniet (French). Of more than 260 pirates, 35 are killed and 46 were wounded; 75 defenders of the city died and more than 100 are woundedEmperor Higashiyama succeeds Emperor Reigen, on the throne of JapanIsaac Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, known as the Principia, is published by the Royal Society of London. In it, Newton describes his law of universal gravitation, explains the laws of mechanics, and gives a formula for the speed of sound. The writing of Principia Mathematica ushers in a tidal wave of changes in thought, significantly accelerating the scientific revolution by providing new and practical intellectual tools, and becomes the foundation of modern physicsBattle of PatrasSecond Battle of MohácsThe navy of the Republic of Venice raids the Dalmatian coast, and attacks Ottoman Turkish strongholds in GreeceThe legend of the Charter Oak begins as a successful attempt to hide the 1662 Royal Charter of the British colony (and now a U.S. state) of Connecticut after Edmund Andros, the Governor of the Dominion of New England, makes a mission of attempting to confiscate the founding documents for the seven colonies that make up the new administrative area. After Governor Andros arrives in Hartford and comes to the tavern of Zachariah Sanford to demand the Connecticut Colony charter, Captain Joseph Wadsworth spirits Suleiman II succeeds the deposed Mehmed IV, as Ottoman EmperorIn response to the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, a group of Huguenots set sail from France, and settle in the recently established Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope, where, using their native skills, they establish the first South African vineyardsFleeing from the Spanish Navy, French pirate Raveneau de Lussan and his 70 men arrive on the west coast of Nicaragua, sink their boats, and make a difficult 10 day march to the city of OcotalPirates Charles Swan and William Dampier and the crew of the privateer Cygnet become the first Englishmen to set foot on the continent of AustraliaIlona Zrínyi, who has defended the Palanok Castle in Hungary from Austrian Imperial forces since 1685, is forced to surrender to General Antonio CaraffaMadame Jeanne Guyon, French mystic, is arrested in France and imprisoned for seven monthsKing James II of England and Scotland issues a proclamation offering amnesty to pirates in the West Indies who surrender to Sir Robert HolmesSix French Jesuit scientists, Joachim Bouvet, Jean-François Gerbillon, Louis-Daniel Lecomte, Guy Tachard, Claude de Visdelou and the leader, Jean de Fontaney, arrive in Beijing and are welcomed by the Emperor of China, KangxiJames R James Renwick, the last of the Covenanters in Scotland to be martyred for opposing the authority of King Charles II, is publicly hanged at Grassmarket square in Edinburghenwick, the last of the Covenanters in Scotland to be martyred for opposing the authority of King Charles II, is publicly hanged at Grassmarket square in EdinburghAbaza Siyavuş Pasha, the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, is assassinated by the Janissaries, the Turkish troops who had placed him in power in September, after the new Sultan fails to make payment of an expected bonusThe French opera David et Jonathas, composed by Marc-Antoine Charpentier, is performed for the first timeA great fire devastates Bungay, EnglandFrancesco Morosini becomes Doge of VeniceThe Venetian forces under Francesco Morosini evacuate Athens and PiraeusThe Germantown Quaker Protest Against Slavery is drafted by four Germantown QuakersFriedrich Wilhelm, the Great Elector of Brandenburg-Prussia, dies. Friedrich III becomes Elector of Brandenburg-Prussia until 1701, when he becomes the first King of Prussia, as Friedrich IKing James II of England orders his Declaration of Indulgence, suspending penal laws against Catholics, to be read from every Anglican pulpit in England. The Church of England and its staunchest supporters, the peers and gentry, are outraged; on June 8 the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Sancroft, is imprisoned in the Tower of London for refusing to proclaim itThe birth of James Francis Edward Stuart (later known as the Old Pretender), son and heir to James II of England and his Catholic wife Mary of Modena, at St James's Palace in London, increases public disquiet about a Catholic dynasty, particularly when the baby is baptised into the Catholic faith. Rumours about his true maternity swiftly begin to circulateFrench forces under Chevalier de Beauregard abandon their garrison at Mergui, following repeated Siamese attacks; this ultimately leads to their withdrawal from the countryA high-powered conspiracy of notables (the Immortal Seven) invite Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange and Princess Mary to "defend the liberties of England", and depose King James VII and IIThe funding of the armed invasion of William III in England causes a financial crisis in the Dutch RepublicThe Venetians raise the siege of NegroponteWilliam III of Orange sets sail a second time from Hellevoetsluis, the Netherlands, to take over England, Scotland and Ireland from King James II of EnglandWilliam of Orange lands at Torbay, England with a multinational force of 20,000 soldiers. He makes no claim to the British Crown, saying only that he has come to save Protestantism and to maintain English liberty, and begins a march on LondonWilliam of Orange captures Exeter, after the magistrates flee the cityThe Wincanton SkirmishA group of 1,500 Old Believers immolate themselves to avoid capture, when troops of the tsar lay siege to their monastery on Lake OnegaHearing that William of Orange has landed in England, Louis XIV declares war on the Netherlands. Perhaps revealingly, he does not attack the Netherlands, but instead strikes at the heart of the Holy Roman Empire, with about 100,000 soldiers. The Nine Years' War begins in Europe and AmericaThe gates of Derry are shut in front of the Jacobite Earl of Antrim and his "redshanks". This initiates the siege of Derry, which is the first major event in the Williamite War in IrelandThe Battle of Reading takes place in Reading, Berkshire. It is the only substantial military action in England during the Glorious Revolution and ends in a decisive victory for forces loyal to William of OrangeHaving led his army to Salisbury and been deserted by his troops, James VII and II attempts to flee to FranceWilliam of Orange, Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic and the future King William III of the United Kingdom, enters LondonThe Convention Parliament is convened to determine if King James II of England, the last Roman Catholic British monarch, vacated the throne when he fled to France, at the end of 1688. The settlement of this is agreed on 8 FebruaryWilliam III and Mary II are proclaimed co-rulers of England, Scotland and IrelandAs French forces leave, they set fire to Heidelberg Castle, and the nearby town of HeidelbergThe deposed James II of England lands with 6,000 French soldiers in Ireland, where there is a Catholic majority, hoping to use it as the base for a counter-coup.[2] However, many Irish Catholics see him as an agent of Louis XIV of France, and refuse to support himJapanese haiku master Bashō sets out on his last great voyage, which will result in the prose and verse classic Oku no Hosomichi ("Narrow Road to the Interior")William III and Mary II are crowned in London as King and Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland. Ireland does not recognize them yet, while the Estates of Scotland declare King James VII of Scotland deposed1689 Boston revoltBattle of Bantry BayWilliam and Mary accept the Scottish throne a month after the Scottish Parliament votes to depose King James VIIWith England and the Netherlands now both ruled by William III, they join the Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg), thus escalating the conflict, which continues until 1697. This is also the effective beginning of King William's War, the first of four North American Wars (until 1763) between English and French colonists, both sides allied to Native American tribes. The nature of the fighting is a series of raids on each other's settlements, across the Canadian and New England bordersThe Act of Toleration, drawn up by the Convention Parliament of England to protect Protestants but with Roman Catholics intentionally excluded, is passed; this effectively concludes the Glorious RevolutionThe last hearth tax is collected in England and WalesThe Convention of Estates adjourns in Scotland after 11 weeks and its members form a new Scottish parliamentThe Duke of Gordon, a Scottish peer and Jacobite supporter, surrenders Edinburgh Castle to Protestant attackers after holding out for 20 days following the Glorious RevolutionThe Council of Wales and the Marches is abolishedBattle of KilliecrankieEnglish sailors break through a floating boom across the River Foyle, to end the siege of Derry after 105 daysEdmund Andros, former governor of the Dominion of New England, escapes from Boston to Connecticut, but is recapturedLachine massacreInnocent XI (Benedetto Odescalchi, b. 1611), Pope since 1676, dies. He played a major part in founding both the League of Augsburg, against Louis XIV, and the Holy League, against the Ottoman EmpireBattle of DunkeldRoman Catholic cardinals convene in Rome for a papal conclave to elect a successor to Pope Innocent XI. The conclave lasts until October 6Gravely ill, the Empress Xiaoyiren is proclaimed empress by her husband, China's Emperor Kangxi, after having been Imperial Noble Consort since 1682. She dies the next dayChina and Russia sign the Treaty of NerchinskKing William brings England into a military alliance with the Holy Roman Empire in a fight against France in the Nine Years WarBattle of NišThe papal conclave in Rome unanimously elects Pietro Vito Ottoboni as the new Pope. Ottoboni takes the name Alexander VIII and succeeds Pope Innocent XI, to become the 241st pope, the first Venetian to hold the office in over 200 yearsPeter the Great decrees the construction of the Great Siberian Road to ChinaThe Bill of Rights (An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown), drawn up by the Convention Parliament of England to establish constitutional monarchy in England, but with Roman Catholics barred from the throne, receives royal assent; it will remain substantially in force into the 21st centuryThe Ottoman Empire defeats Serbian rebels and Austrian troops in battle at Kaçanik Gorge, prompting more than 30,000 Serb refugees to flee northward from Kosovo, Macedonia and Sandžak to the Austrian EmpireAt the age of 11 years old, Prince Joseph, son of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, is named as "King of the Romans", the next in line to become the EmperorThe first recorded full peal is rung, at St Sepulchre-without-Newgate in the City of London, marking a new era in change ringingCaptain Thomas Pound, after being captured with his crew the previous month, is tried in Boston and found guilty of piracy although he is later reprievedThe crew of the ship HMS Welfare, commanded by John Strong, become the first European people to land at the Falkland IslandsWilliam Coward is hanged for acts of piracy, following his capture after seizing the ketch Elenor anchored in Boston Harbor the previous yearThe Convention Parliament is dissolved in EnglandThe Massachusetts Bay Colony issues the first paper money in North AmericaKing William III of England calls for new elections for the 512-member House of CommonsThe Schenectady massacreThe opera Orphée by Louis Lully receives its first performance at the Académie Royale de Musique (the Paris Opera)The 2nd Parliament of William III and Mary II is assembled in London, split almost equally with 243 Whigs, 241 Tories, and 28 independent membersLeopold I, Holy Roman Emperor issues a document inviting Serbians to resettle in Hungary, at this time a part of the EmpireThe Parliament of Scotland passes an Act to abolish episcopy in the presbyterian Church of Scotland. The Anglican Episcopal Church in Scotland continues as a separate denomination, retaining bishopsThe Battle of Port Royal takes place in Nova Scotia after an invasion by a militia of 446 soldiers and 226 sailors from the Massachusetts Bay Colony on seven warships. With only 90 French colonial soldiers to defend Port-Royal, Acadian Governor Louis-Alexandre des Friches de Menneval surrenders before the end of the dayEngland passes the Act of Grace, forgiving followers of the deposed James IIKing William III of England (William of Orange) lands in Ireland to confront James IIBattle of Beachy HeadBattle of the BoyneA French landing party raids and burns Teignmouth in Devon, England. However, with the loss of James II's position in Ireland, any plans for a real invasion are soon shelved, and Teignmouth is the last French attack on EnglandThe only issue of Publick Occurrences is published in Boston, Massachusetts, before being suppressed by the colonial authoritiesThe play Amphitryon by John Dryden, based on Molière's 1668 play of the same name, receives its first performance at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, LondonThe opera Énée et Lavinie (Aeneas and Lavinia) by the French composer Pascal Collasse receives its first performance at the Académie Royale de Musique (the Paris Opera)Near South Mimms, England, several highwaymen stop a convoy carying taxes from the Midlands to London and take £15,000Barclays, which will continue to be active into the 21st century as a multinational bank and lending institution, is founded in London by John Freame and Thomas Gould as Freame & Gould. The bank changes its name in 1736 when James Barclay becomes a partnerPlaywright Henry Nevil Payne is tortured for his role in the Montgomery Plot to restore James II to the throne — the last time a political prisoner is subjected to torture in BritainTsar Peter the Great decrees that the Russian calendar will move New Year's Day to January 1 rather than September 1, effective January 1, 1692. On the Russian calendar (which still uses the Julian system at this time, 10 days behind the Gregorian calendar which will be adopted in Russia more than 200 years later), 1691 has begun on what would otherwise be considered September 11, 1690King William III of England, who rules Scotland and Ireland as well as being the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, departs from Margate to tend to the affairs of the NetherlandsA fleet of ships carrying 827 Spanish Navy sailors and marines arrives at Manzanillo Bay on the island of Hispaniola in what is now the Dominican Republic and joins 700 Spanish cavalry, then proceeds westward to invade the French side of the island in what is now HaitiKing Louis XIV of France issues an order specifically prohibiting play of games of chance, specifically naming basset and similar games, on penalty of 1,000 livres for the first offenceSpanish colonial administrator Domingo Terán de los Ríos, most recently the governor of Sonora y Sinaloa on the east side of the Gulf of California, is assigned by the Viceroy of New Spain to administer a new province that governs lands on both sides of the Río Bravo del Norte, "Coahuila y Tejas", and effectively becomes the first Governor of TexasThe Athenian Mercury begins twice-weekly publication by The Athenian Society in LondonA new governor arrives in New York – Jacob Leisler surrenders, after a standoff of several hoursA fire at the Palace of Whitehall in London destroys its Stone GalleryThe Spanish Inquisition condemns and forcibly baptizes 219 Xuetas in Palma, Majorca. When 37 try to escape the island, they are burned alive at the stakeThe Province of New York establishes the New York Supreme Court as the Supreme Court of Judicature. It is the oldest Supreme Court with general original jurisdictionJacob Leisler is hanged for treasonAhmed II (1691–1695) succeeds Suleiman II (1687–1691), as Ottoman EmperorBattle of AughrimBattle of La PrairieBattle of SlankamenIn Scotland, King William offers the Highland clans a pardon for their part in the Jacobite rising of 1689 if they agree to pledge allegiance to him before New Year's DayHMS Coronation and HMS Harwich are lost in a storm while making for shelter in Plymouth Sound with 900 killedBattle of LeuzeThe Treaty of Limerick, ending the Williamite War in Ireland and guaranteeing civil rights to Roman Catholics, is signed. The Flight of the Wild Geese followsIn New England, the two separate colonies of Massachusetts Bay Colony and Plymouth Colony are united into a single entity by an act of the King and Queen of EnglandIn Limerick, "A Form of Prayer and Thanksgiving to the Almighty God for the Preservation of Their Majesties, the Success of Their Forces in the reducing of Ireland, and for His Majesties Safe Return" is celebrated in all Anglican churches in Britain and Ireland by order of Archbishop TillotsonDuring the Morean War, Captain Luca Dalla Rocca of Naples betrays Venice by surrendering the fortress of Gramvousa, on the island of Crete to the Ottoman Turks, in return for a large amount of money and sanctuary in IstanbulPatrick Sarsfield and 19,000 troops of the Irish Army who had been supporters of the Jacobite Rebellion leave the country and relocate to FranceRaid on YorkEnglish Army General John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, a close adviser to King William III of England, is fired from all of his jobs by the English Secretary of State, the Earl of Nottingham, on orders of Mary II of EnglandMassacre of GlencoeThe Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty issues the Edict of Toleration, recognizing all the members of the Roman Catholic Church, not just the Jesuits, and legalizing missions and their conversion of Chinese people to the Christian FaithThe first performance of the semi-opera The Fairy-Queen by Henry Purcell, based on William Shakespeare's comedy A Midsummer Night's Dream, takes place at the Queen's Theatre, Dorset Garden in LondonDuring a famine in Mexico City, an angry mob torches the Viceroy's palace and ignites the archives; most of the documents and some paintings are saved by royal geographer Carlos de Sigüenza y GóngoraWine shop owner Antoine Savetier and his wife are murdered by thieves in the French city of Lyon, and a peasant named Jacques Aymar-Vernay is called in as a detective to solve the case. Aymar finds one of the perpetrators, Joseph Arnoul, who confesses to the crime and implicates two accomplices who manage to escape. Arnoul is executed by being "broken on the wheel" on August 30Diego de Vargas leads Spanish colonists in retaking the city of Santa Fe, after a 12-year exile, following the Pueblo Revolt of 1680In Barbados, a slave revolt is crushedThe King of Spain donates the lands that become the municipalities of San Francisco and Mapulaca in HondurasJohn Goldsborough arrives in Madras as the new administrator of the British East India CompanyNahum Tate is named as the new Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom and serves for 22 years until his deathThe French ship Soleil Royal, a three-decker First Rank ship with 104 guns, is launched at Brest DockyardThe College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia is granted a Royal charterThe publication of the first women's magazine, titled The Ladies' Mercury, takes place in London. It is published by the Athenian SocietyBozoklu Mustafa Pasha becomes the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, after Sultan Ahmed II appoints him as the successor of Çalık Ali PashaThe Order of Saint Louis, the first medal to be awarded in France to military personnel who are not members of nobility, is created by order of King Louis XIV, and named after his ancestor, King Louis IXThe 90-gun English Royal Navy warship HMS Windsor Castle is wrecked beyond repair on the Goodwin SandsForces of Louis XIV of France attack Heidelberg, capital of the Electorate of the PalatinateHeidelberg is taken by the invading French forces; on May 23 Heidelberg Castle is surrendered, after which the French blow up its towers using minesThe first performance of the opera Didon by French composer Henri Desmarets takes place at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in ParisBattle of LagosBattle of LandenThe Indian Ocean port of Pondicherry, capital of French India is captured by a 17-ship fleet from the Netherlands and 1,600 men under the command of Laurens Pit the YoungerFrancesco Invrea, King of Corsica, begins a two-year term as the Doge of the Republic of Genoa in Italy, succeeding Giovanni Battista Cattaneo Della VoltaFrance begins the siege of the Spanish Netherlands (now Belgium) fort of Charleroi.King Louis XIV of France sends a letter to Pope Innocent XII announcing the rescission of the Declaration of the Clergy of France issued in 1682Battle of MarsagliaCharleroi falls to French forcesKing Charles II of Spain issues a royal edict providing sanctuary in Spanish Florida for escaped slaves from the English colony of South CarolinaThe 46-gun Royal Navy frigate HMS Mordaunt founders off of the coast of CubaA fleet of 30 English and Dutch ships captures the French port of Saint-MaloDiego de Vargas, Spanish colonial governor of Santa Fe de Nuevo México (now the area around the capital of the U.S. state of New Mexico, returns to the walled city of Santa Fe and requests the Pueblo people to accept the authority of the colonial government. Negotiations fail and a siege begins on December 29. The Pueblo defenders surrender the next day and the 70 rebels are executed soon after. The 400 civilian women and children are made slaves and distributed to the Spanish colonistsThe new 80-gun English Navy warship HMS Sussex departs Portsmouth on its maiden voyage, escorting a fleet of 48 warships and 166 merchant ships to the Mediterranean Sea. The fleet runs into a storm on February 27, 1694, and on March 1, Sussex and 12 other warships sink, along with a cargo of goldFrancesco Morosini, the Doge of Venice since 1688, dies after ruling the Republic for more than five years and a few months after an unsuccessful attempt to capture the island of Negropont from the Ottoman Empire during the Morean WarSir James Montgomery of Scotland, who had been arrested on January 11 for conspiracy to restore King James to the throne, escapes and flees to FranceThe Kiev Academy, now the national university of Ukraine, receives official recognition by Tsar Ivan V of RussiaPirro e Demetrio, an opera by Alessandro Scarlatti, is given its first performance, debuting at the Teatro San Bartolomeo in Naples. The opera is adapted in 1708 in London as Pyrrhus and Demetrius and becomes the second most popular opera in 18th century LondonFrench missionary Jean-Baptiste Labat arrives in the "New World", landing at the Caribbean island of MartiniqueThe ship Ridderschap van Holland is lost at sea, having departed the Cape of Good Hope with a crew of 300, with a destination of Batavia (now Jakarta in Indonesia), normally a voyage of two months. It never arrives and is never seen againThe colony of Quilombo dos Palmares, created by rebel African slaves in Brazil, is destroyed by the bandeirantes, colonial troops under the command of Domingos Jorge Velho. After a successful attack on its capital, Cerca do Macaco, the last King of Dos Palmares, Zumbi, flees after a reign of more than 13 years, but is later captured and executedSilvestro Valier is elected as the new Doge of Venice to replace the late Francesco MorosiniThe HMS Sussex treasure fleet of thirteen ships is wrecked in the Mediterranean off Gibraltar, with the loss of approximately 1,200 livesSheikh Yusuf, exiled by the administrators of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), arrives at the Dutch Cape Colony on the ship De Voetboog, at what is now Cape Town, South Africa, along with two wives, two concubines and 12 children. Resettled by the colonial government at a farm in Zandvliet, the Sheikh introduces Islam to South AfricaThe English Navy's 40-gun warship, HMS Ruby, captures the French privateer Entreprenant in battle. The confiscated ship is renamed HMS Ruby PrizeThe French ship Diligente, commanded by René Duguay-Trouin, covers the escape of a convoy of ships that he is escorting, but then is surrounded and attacked by six Royal Navy ships led by David Mitchell. Most of the Diligente crew is lost in the battle, and Duguay-Trouin is capturedFrederick Augustus of Wettin, later known as "Augustus the Strong" and the future King of Poland, becomes the new Elector of Saxony upon the death of his 25-year-old older brother, John George IVBattle of TorroellaBattle of TexelThe Bank of England is founded through Royal charter by the Whig-dominated Parliament of England, following a proposal by Scottish merchant William Paterson to raise capital, by offering safe and steady returns of interest guaranteed by future taxes. A total of £1.2 million is raised for the war effort against Louis XIV of France by the end of the year, to establish the first-ever government debtThe Dictionnaire de l'Académie française, the first official dictionary of the French language, is presented by Jacques de Tourreil and Academy members on behalf of the Académie française to King Louis XIVGreat Fire of WarwickBritish/American colonial forces, led by Sir William Phips, fail to seize Quebec from the FrenchQueen Mary II of England founds the Royal Hospital for Seamen at GreenwichThe Army of Algeria captures Tunis, the capital of Tunisia, after a siege of three months, bringing an end to the Tunisian–Algerian War. Mohamed Bey El Mouradi, the Bey of Tunis, flees southward while Prince Muhammad ben Cheker of Tunisia becomes the new Dey on behalf of the Dey of Algiers, Hadj AhmedThe Parliament of England passes the Triennial Act, requiring general elections every three yearsThomas Tenison is appointed Archbishop of CanterburyThe United Kingdom's last joint monarchy, the reign of husband-and-wife King William III and Queen Mary II comes to an end with the death of Queen Mary, at the age of 32. Princess Mary had been installed as the monarch along with her husband and cousin, Willem Hendrik von Oranje, Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, in 1689 after King James II was deposed by Willem during the "Glorious Revolution"The Royal Navy warship HMS Nonsuch is captured near England's Isles of Scilly by the 48-gun French privateer Le Francois. Nonsuch is then sold to the French Navy and renamed Le Sans PareilA flotilla of six Royal Navy warships under the command of Commodore James Killegrew aboard HMS Plymouth captures two French warships, the Content and the Trident, the day after the French ships had mistaken the English fleet to be a group of merchant ships to attackMustafa II (1664 – 1703) succeeds his uncle, Ahmed II as Sultan of the Ottoman EmpireThe funeral of Queen Mary II of England takes place, accompanied by music written for the occasion by Henry PurcellBattle of Sant Esteve d'en BasJohn Trevor, Speaker of the English House of Commons, is expelled from the House by vote of the members, after being found guilty of accepting a bribe of 1000 pounds sterling from the City of London CorporationPaul Foley is elected as the new Speaker of the House after the expulsion of John TrevorJohn Hungerford is expelled from the English House of Commons when members vote to find him guilty of accepting a bribe in return for using his committee chairmanship to promote the pending Orphans BillThe House of Commons of England decides not to renew the Licensing Order of 1643, and states its reasoning, beginning with "Because it revives, and re-enacts, a Law which in no-wise answered the End for which it was made". The lifting of censorship creates a more open society, and an explosion of print results. Within 30 years, the number of printing houses in England increases from 20 to 103Sürmeli Ali Pasha is fired from his position as Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, after coming into a disagreement with the new Sultan, Mustafa II. Sürmeli is initially sent into exile, but executed on the Sultan's orders on May 29The Commission of Enquiry into the Massacre of Glencoe in Scotland in 1692 reports to the Parliament of England, blaming Sir John Dalrymple, Secretary of State over Scotland, and declares that a soldier should refuse to obey a "command against the law of nature"The Bank of Scotland is foundedThe Wren Building is started in Williamsburg, Virginia (completed in 1700)France surrenders Namur, Spanish Netherlands to forces of the Grand Alliance, led by King William III of England, Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, following the 2-month Siege of NamurEnglish pirate Henry Every perpetrates one of the most profitable raids in history, with the capture of the Grand Mughal ship Ganj-i-Sawai. In response, Emperor Aurangzeb threatens to put an end to all English trading in IndiaAll but eight of the remaining 305 crew of the Royal Navy ship HMS Winchester (1693) are killed when the ship founders in the Florida Keys. According to the ship's logbook, an epidemic of yellow fever began on August 1 and had killed 45 people before the hurricane struck, and left all but seven crew members too ill to walkKing William III of England dissolves Parliament in the wake of a scandal involving former Speaker of the House of Commons John Trevor and other Tory MPsThe 48-gun English Navy ship HMS Berkeley Castle is captured by the French NavyThe new Parliament, with 513 members of the House of Commons is opened by King William III. Commons is composed of 257 Whigs (who hold a majority of one), 203 Tories and 53 members of other parties or independentsA window tax is imposed in England.Some windows are bricked up to avoid itThe Recoinage Act, passed by the Parliament of England to pull counterfeit silver coins out of circulation, becomes lawIn England, the ship HMS Royal Sovereign (formerly HMS Sovereign of the Seas, 1638) catches fire and burns at Chatham, after 57 years of serviceIn the Netherlands, undertakers revolt after funeral reforms in AmsterdamPeter the Great who had jointly reigned since 1682 with his mentally-ill older half-brother, Tsar Ivan V, becomes the sole Tsar of Russia when Ivan dies at the age of 291696 Jacobite assassination plotA royal proclamation is issued to arrest suspected Jacobite conspirators who had plotted the assassination of King William III, including gunman Robert Charnock and organizers George Barclay, and Sir John Fenwick. Barclay eludes capture, but Charnock and Fenwick are executedKing William III of England departs from the NetherlandsRobert Charnock, who had been arrested for the Jacobite plot to kill King William is hanged at the Tower of LondonJohn Salomonsz is elected chief of Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean NetherlandsA second Pueblo Revolt occurs in Santa Fe de Nuevo México. The Tiwas of Taos and Picuris, the Tewas of San Ildefonso and Nambe, the Tanos of Jemez and San Cristobal, and the Keres of Santo Domingo and Cochiti attack during the full moon and kill 21 Spanish civilians and five priestsBattle of Jao ModoThe throne of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth becomes vacant with the death of Jan Sobieski, prompting a competition between Friedrich Augustus, Elector of Saxony and Prince François Louis of France to compete under the Commonwealth's "Golden Liberty" system for an elective monarchy of the new King by the nobility. Jerzy Albrecht Denhoff, the Grand Chancellor, remains the head of the Polish-Lithuanian government during the vacancy of the ceremonial throneThe Battle of Dogger BankThe Dutch state of Drenthe makes William III of Orange its StadtholderBattle of AndrosKing Louis XIV of France and Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, sign the Treaty of Turin, ending Savoy's involvement in the Nine Years' WarThe Parliament of Scotland passes the Education Act 1696, providing for locally funded, Church-supervised schools to be established in every parish in ScotlandEngland's Royal Navy scuttles and deliberately sinks its 32-gun battleship HMS Sapphire in Bay Bulls Harbour in Newfoundland, rather than let it be captured by the French Navy following a disastrous battleThe Capture of York FactoryThe Convention of Vigevano is signed, bringing a general ceasefire in Italy and an end to the Nine Years' War between France and the remaining members of the Grand AllianceThe Imperial Russian Navy is founded on the recommendation of Tsar Peter the Great and approval by the Russian DumaHand in Hand Fire & Life Insurance Society, as predecessor to Aviva, is founded in EnglandJohn Vanbrugh's play The Relapse is first performed in LondonIn England, the House of Commons approves the bill of attainder to convict Sir John Fenwick of high treason for plotting to lead the assassination of and coup d'état against King William III, on its third and final reading, voting 187 to 161 in favor of conviction. The measure then moves to the House of LordsPierre Le Moyne d'Iberville captures and destroys St. John's, Newfoundland after a three-day siegeJean-François Regnard's verse comedy Le Joueur ("The Gamester") premieres in ParisBy a vote of 66 to 60, the English House of Lords approves the bill of attainder for the conviction of Sir John Fenwick for high treason.[15] Fenwick is beheaded on January 28, 1697The Inquisition in Portugal carries out the sentence of burning at the stake against several Marrano Jews in ÉvoraThomas Aikenhead is hanged outside Edinburgh, becoming the last person in Great Britain to be executed for blasphemyFrench writer Charles Perrault releases the book Histoires ou contes du temps passé (literally "Tales of Past Times", known in England as "Mother Goose tales") in Paris, a collection of popular fairy tales, including Cinderella, Puss in Boots, Red Riding Hood, The Sleeping Beauty and BluebeardGerrit de Heere becomes the new Governor of Dutch Ceylon, succeeding Thomas van Rhee and administering the colony for almost six years until his deathConquistador Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi and 114 soldiers arrive at Lake Petén Itzá in what is now Guatemala and begin the Spanish conquest of Guatemala with an attack on the capital of the Itza people there before moving northward to the Yucatan peninsulaThe Spanish conquest of Petén, and of Yucatán, is completed with the fall of Nojpetén, capital of the Itza Maya Kingdom, the last independent Maya stateCharles II of Spain issues a Royal Cedula extending to the indigenous nobles of the Spanish Crown colonies, as well as to their descendants, the preeminence and honors customarily attributed to the Hidalgos of CastileCharles XII, the Swedish Meteor, becomes king of Sweden at age 14 on the death of his father, Charles XIAs Chinese troops from the Manchu Dynasty (ruled by the Kangxi Emperor) complete their conquest of Mongolia, Galdan Boshugtu Khan, ruler of the last part of Mongolia to be conquered, the Dzungar Khanate, poisons himself, ending the resistance to conquestThe Raid on Cartagena de IndiasThe 13th century royal Tre Kronor ("Three Crowns") castle in Stockholm burns to the ground. A large portion of the royal library is destroyedThe last mass execution for witchcraft in western Europe when five Paisley witches are hanged and then burned in ScotlandAugustus II the Strong is elected King of Poland after converting to Roman Catholicism on June 2A Byzantine icon, the "Weeping Madonna of Pócs", arrives in Vienna after a five-month journey following its forced removal from the Hungarian village of Pócs by order of the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I. It has been housed for more than 320 years in St. Stephen's CathedralAction of 6 July 1697Mahmud Shah II, the Sultan of Johor and Pahang (now part of Malaysia) takes on full power upon the death of the regent, the Bendahara Paduka Raja. Mahmud II was only 10 years old when he became the Sultan upon the assassination of his father, Ibrahim Shah in 1685The opera Vénus et Adonis, composed by Henri Desmarets with libretto by Jean-Baptiste Rousseau, receives its first performance, premiering at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in ParisBattle of Hudson's BayBattle of ZentaAmcazade Köprülü Hüseyin Pasha becomes the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in the wake of the disastrous Ottoman defeat at Zenta, replacing Grand Vizier Elmas Mehmed Pasha, who was killed in the battle by his own troopsThe Treaty of Ryswick is signed by France and the Grand Alliance, to end both the Nine Years' War and King William's War. Louis XIV of France recognises William III as King of England & Scotland, and both sides return territories they have taken in battle. In North America, the treaty returns Port-Royal (Acadia) to FranceThe opera Issé, composed by André Cardinal Destouches with libretto by Antoine Houdar de la Motte, premieres at the Palace of Fontainebleau in FranceThe Norwegian Code, promulgated by King Christian V of Denmark for Norway in 1687, is amended to provide for torture of condemned criminals in certain capital offenses in Norway, with permission for burning with hot irons, or cutting off the prisoner's right hand while the prisoner is being transported for decapitationMisión Loreto, the first Roman Catholic mission on Mexico's Baja California Peninsula, is founded by Spanish missionary Juan María de SalvatierraThe first opéra-ballet, combining elements of both mediums of entertainment, is performed as L'Europe galante makes its debut at the Salle du Palais-Royal in Paris. Composed by André Campra, with libretto by Antoine Houdar de la Motte, the opera and ballet is conducted by Marin MaraisThe Nine Years' War, between France and the Grand Alliance comes to an end with the signing of the last pacts of the Peace of Ryswick in the Dutch city of Rijswijk as Leopold I of Austria accedes two days before a deadline that had been set by the other members of the Grand Alliance. The areas of the Duchy of Lorraine (Lotharingen), Freiburg im Breisgau, and Vieux-Brisach (Breisach) are returned by France to Leopold's controlThe elaborate burial of the late King Charles XI of Sweden takes place more than seven months after his April 5 death, with interment at the Riddarholmen Church on the island of Riddarholmen near StockholmPrince Eugene of Savoy, a field marshal within the Holy Roman Empire, purchases a large tract of land in Vienna for construction of the Belvedere PalaceThe first service is held in St Paul's Cathedral since rebuilding work after the Great Fire of London beganLouis, Duke of Burgundy, and Marie Adélaïde of Savoy marry in the royal chapel at the Palace of Versailles in FranceA ball in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles is held to celebrate the Duke of Burgundy and Marie Adélaïde's weddingThe coronation ceremony takes place for King Charles XII of SwedenThe Abenaki tribe and Massachusetts colonists sign a treaty, ending the conflict in New EnglandThe Palace of Whitehall in London, England is destroyed by fireGeorge Louis becomes Elector of Hanover upon the death of his father, Ernest Augustus. Because the widow of Ernest Augustus, George's mother Sophia, was heiress presumptive as the cousin of Anne, Queen of Great Britain, and Anne's closest eligible heir, George will become King of Great BritainWilliam Kidd, who initially seized foreign ships under authority as a privateer for the British Empire before becoming a pirate, becomes an outlaw and uses his ship, the Adventure Galley, to capture an Indian ship, the valuable Quedagh Merchant, near IndiaThe Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, the oldest Anglican mission organization in the world, is founded by English clergyman Thomas Bray and four other people at Lincoln's Inn in London, along with Sir Humphrey Mackworth, Maynard Colchester, Lord Guilford and John HookeScottish pirate William Kidd and his crew arrive at Île Sainte-Marie off of the coast of Madagascar in Kidd's Adventure Galley bringing with them the cargo of the captured ships Quedagh Merchant and Rouparelle. Upon arrival, all but 13 of Kidd's crew desert to work for another pirate, Robert Culliford. The Adventure Galley, which is leaking and falling apart, sinks and the Rouparelle is sunk by the deserters. Kidd and his 13 henchmen depart on Quedah MerchantThe Banishment Act of 1697 goes into effect for Roman Catholic church officials in Ireland, having been the deadline for all "popish archbishops, bishops, vicars general, deans, jesuits, monks, friars, and other regular popish clergy" to have reported to Irish ports for deportation. Re-entry to Ireland after May 4, 1698, is a criminal offense with a penalty of 12 months imprisonment and expulsion, while a second re-entry is punishable by death as treasonThe British Royal Navy ship HMS Hastings, a 32-gun fifth rate, is launchedJohn Churchill, Earl of Marlborough is reinstated in the English Army, with readmission to the Privy Council by King William III. On July 26, he is selected as one of the Lords JusticeThe Trade with Africa Act 1697 goes into effect in the British Empire, ending the monopoly of the Royal African Company in the African slave trade by opening trade to any English merchants who pay a 10 percent fee to the companyThe English House of Commons is dissolved and new elections are held between July 19 and August 10 for a parliament to be summoned on August 24The first Scottish settlers leave for an ill-fated colony in PanamaEnglish engineer Thomas Savery obtains a patent for a steam pumpKing William III opens the newly elected House of Commons at WestminsterPeter the Great arrives back in Moscow; General Patrick Gordon has already crushed the Streltsy Uprising, with 341 rebels sentenced to be decapitatedIn an effort to move his people away from Asiatic customs, Tsar Peter I of Russia imposes a beard taxA charter is granted by King William III of England to the new East India Company of England, called "the New Company" or "the English Company" to break the monopoly that has existed in India since 1689 with the existing British East India CompanyThe Treaty of the Hague is signed between the Dutch Republic, England and FranceIberville and Bienville sail from Brest to the Gulf of Mexico, to defend the southern borders of New FranceThe Darien scheme Scottish settlers land in Panama and establish their ill-fated colony; 80% of them would die within the first yearThe first Eddystone Lighthouse, built off Plymouth, England, is illuminatedThe Spanish king Carlos names his grandson Jozef Ferdinand as his heirA congress begins in Sremski Karlovci to discuss a treaty between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy LeagueKing William III of England issues a proclamation of "our most gracious pardon unto all such pirates in the East Indies, viz., all eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, who shall surrender themselves for piracies or robberies committed by them upon sea or land" before April 30, 1699 to Captain Thomas Warren, but specifically "excepting Henry Every, alias Bridgman, and William KiddFrancis Nicholson becomes the new British colonial governor of Virginia, succeeding Sir Edmund AndrosThe Parliament of England (under Tory dominance) limits the size of the country's standing army to 7,000 'native born' men hence, King William III's Dutch Blue Guards cannot serve in the line. By an Act of February 1, it also requires disbandment of foreign troops in IrelandThe Republic of Venice, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Holy Roman Empire sign the Treaty of Karlowitz with the Ottoman Empire, marking an end to the major phase of the Ottoman–Habsburg wars. The treaty marks a major geopolitical shift, as the Ottoman Empire subsequently abandons its expansionism and adopts a defensive posture while the Habsburg monarchy expands its influenceThe Edinburgh Gazette is first published in ScotlandJews are expelled from Lübeck, GermanyThe first performance of Amadis de Grèce, an opera by French composer André Cardinal Destouches, takes place at the Académie Royale de Musique, ParisPierre Le Moyne d'Iberville founds the first European settlement in the Mississippi River Valley, at Fort Maurepas (Ocean Springs, Mississippi)Billingsgate Fish Market in London is sanctioned as a permanent institution by an Act of Parliament, with the provision "that after the tenth of May, 1699, Billingsgate Market should be, every day in the week except Sunday, a free and open market for all sorts of fish, and that it should be lawful for any person to buy or sell any sort of fish without disturbanceEngland, France and the Dutch Republic agree on the terms of the Treaty of London (1700) (Second Partition Treaty) for SpainThomas Savery demonstrates his first steam pump to the Royal Society of LondonPirate Captain William Kidd is arrested and imprisoned in Boston, MassachusettsWilliam Dampier's expedition to New Holland (Australia), in HMS Roebuck, reaches Dirk Hartog Island, at the mouth of what he calls Shark Bay in Western Australia, and he begins producing the first known detailed record of Australian flora and faunaChristian V, King of Denmark–Norway since 1670, dies and is succeeded by his son, Frederick IV (to 1730)The Liverpool Merchant, the first slave ship from the port of Liverpool in England, departs to imprison captured West Africans and transport them to the British colonies, arriving in Barbados on September 18, 1700 with 220 slavesWilliam Penn begins monthly meetings for blacks advocating emancipationThe legislature for the Province of Massachusetts Bay (the modern-day Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States) passes into law "An Act against Jesuits & Popish Priests" making a finding that Roman Catholic clerics have attempted to incite American Indians into a rebellion against the Crown, and declaring "That all and every Jesuit, Seminary Priest, Missionary, or other Spiritual or Ecclesiastical Person made or ordained by any Authority, Power or Jurisdiction derived, challenged or pretended fromThe Prussian Academy of Sciences is founded, with Gottfried Leibniz as presidentCharles XII of Sweden counter-attacks his enemies by invading Zealand (Denmark), assisted by an Anglo-Dutch naval squadron under Sir George Rooke, rapidly compelling the Danes to submit to peaceEleven-year-old Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, dies of "a malignant fever" at Windsor Castle, leaving the Protestant succession to the British throne in doubtThe Peace of Travendal is concluded between the Swedish Empire, Denmark–Norway and Holstein-Gottorp in Traventhal. On the same day, Augustus II, King of Poland, and Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, enter the war against SwedenEdmond Halley returns to England after a voyage of almost one year on HMS Paramour, from which he has observed the Antarctic Convergence,[10] and publishes his findings on terrestrial magnetism in General Chart of the Variation of the CompassPope Innocent XII dies at the age of 85 after a tenure of more than nine years. Fabrizio Spada, the Cardinal Secretary of State, assumes administration of the Roman Catholic Church in order to oversee the election of a new PopeAdrian, Patriarch of All Russia, dies after more than 10 years as head of the Russian Orthodox Church. He is replaced by the hand-picked choice of Tsar Peter the Great with the appointment of Simeon Ivanovich Yavorsky as Patriarch StefanCharles II, the last Spanish king of the House of Habsburg, dies at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid aged 38, leaving no children; his last will makes Philip of Anjou his heirLouis XIV of France accepts the Spanish crown on behalf of his grandson Philip of Anjou of the House of Bourbon, who becomes Philip V of Spain (reigning for 44 years – with a short break – to 1746), thus triggering the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714)Cardinal Giovanni Francesco Albani, having been ordained as a Roman Catholic priest only two months earlier, is elected by the Papal conclave to succeed Pope Innocent XII, and becomes the 243rd pope, taking the name of Clement XIBattle of NarvaThe formal coronation of Pope Clement XI takes place in RomeLaurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester, Lord President of the Council in charge of the Privy Council, is appointed to the additional job of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the highest Crown official in charge of administration of IrelandThe 4th Parliament of King William III in England is dissolved and new elections are ordered by the KingParts of the Netherlands adopt the Gregorian calendarThe electorate of Brandenburg-Prussia becomes the Kingdom of Prussia, as Elector Frederick III is proclaimed King Frederick I. Prussia remains part of the Holy Roman Empire. It consists of Brandenburg, Pomerania and East Prussia. Berlin is the capitalBattle of DartsedoThe 5th Parliament of King William III is assembled. Future Prime Minister Robert Walpole enters the Parliament of England, and soon makes his name as a spokesman for Whig policyMecklenburg-Strelitz is created as a north German duchySafavid troops retreat from Basra, ending a three year occupationIn Japan, the young daimyō Asano Naganori is ordered to commit seppuku (ritual suicide). A group of 47 samurai of his service begin planning to avenge his deathAfter being convicted of murdering William Moore, and for piracy, Captain William Kidd is hanged in LondonThe Act of Settlement 1701 is passed by the Parliament of England, to exclude the Catholic Stuarts from the British monarchy. Under its terms, King William III, childless, will be succeeded by Queen Mary II's sister Princess Anne and her descendants. If Anne should have no descendants, she will be succeeded by Sophia of Hanover and her descendants (hence the Hanoverian Succession in 1714)The Myrton baronets, a British nobility title is createdBattle of CarpiThe Crossing of the DünaA French emporium named Fort Ponchartrain is founded along the west side of the Detroit River in North America, and later becomes the site of the city of DetroitThe Great Peace of Montreal is signed, ending 100 years of war between the Iroquois Confederacy and New France, and its Huron and Algonquian allies. Formerly allied with the English, the treaty assures the Iroquois will be neutral, if France and England ever resume hostilitiesDeposed King James II of England (James VII of Scotland) dies in exile, at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye in France. His supporters, the Jacobites, turn to his son James Francis Edward Stuart (later called "The Old Pretender"), whom they recognise as James VIII and III. Louis XIV of France, the Papal States and Spain also recognise him as the rightful heirThe Collegiate School of Connecticut (later renamed Yale University) is chartered in Old Saybrook, ConnecticutKing Philip V of Spain marries for the first time, to 13-year-old Maria Luisa Gabriella of Savoy, who serves as Queen Consort until her death from tuberculosis at the age of 25The House of Commons of England is dissolved by King William III and new elections are called for all 531 seatsBattle of ErastferIn North America, ships from Fort Maurepas arrive at Twenty-Seven Mile Bluff, to build Fort Louis de la Mobile (future Mobile, Alabama), to become the capital of French LouisianaBattle of CremonaKing William III of England is fatally injured in an accident when he is thrown from his horse, "Sorrel", while riding in Hampton Court Park near London. Already in poor health before the accident, he dies from his injuries 16 days later at the age of 51Princess Anne Stuart, daughter of the late King James II and younger sister of his successor, Mary II of England (who had reigned jointly with her husband, William III, as "William and Mary" until her death in 1694), ascends the English, Scottish and Irish thrones upon William's death. In her first speech to the English Parliament, made three days later, she tells the assembly "As I know my heart to be entirely English, I can very sincerely assure you there is not anything you can expect or desire from me wThe first regular English-language national newspaper, The Daily Courant, begins publication[3] on Fleet Street in the City of London; it covers only foreign newsBattle of DarsūniškisThe Dutch East India Company ship Merestein strikes rocks and sinks in Saldanha Bay off Jutten Island, Africa with the loss of 101 of the 200 people on boardThe British Province of New Jersey, encompassing all of the modern-day U.S. state of New Jersey and portions of New York, is created as proprietary owners in the provinces of East Jersey and West Jersey surrender their rights to the CrownThe opera Marthésie, première reine des Amazones (Marthesia, First Queen of the Amazons), composed by André Cardinal Destouches, is performed for the first time, premiering at Fontainebleau near ParisThe Treaty of Preobrazhenskoye, negotiated by Johann Patkul, is signed at a palace of the Tsar of Russia Peter the Great, and representatives of Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony to provide for the partition of Swedish Empire between Saxony, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Kingdom of Denmark and the Russian EmpireBaron Jacob Hop is appointed as the treasurer-general of The HaguePeter the Great orders the Russian New Year changed, from 1 September to 1 JanuaryProtestant nations in Western Europe, except England, start using the Gregorian calendar. Catholic nations have been using the Gregorian calendar since its introduction in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIIIThe Tsardom of Russia begins numbering its calendar from the birth of Christ (Anno Domini), instead of since the Creation (Anno Mundi)The 'Lesser Great Fire' destroys a substantial part of central Edinburgh, ScotlandThe island of New Britain is discovered by William Dampier, in the western PacificProtestant Germany and Denmark–Norway adopt the Gregorian calendarThe Swedish calendar is adoptedThe Treaty of London is signed between France, England and the Dutch RepublicThe coronation of King Frederick IV of Denmark takes place at Frederiksborg Castle in CopenhagenHungarian freedom activist Ferenc Rákóczi is arrested by Austrian authorities and charged with sedition. Imprisoned near Vienna and facing a death sentence, he escapes and later leads the overthrow of the Habsburg control of HungaryWithin a few days of poet John Dryden's death in London (May 1 O.S.), his last written work (The Secular Masque) is performed as part of Vanbrugh's version of The PilgrimThe first two missionaries from the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts set sail from England to North AmericaCloudesley Shovell is promoted to full admiral in the English navyWar is declared on France by the Grand Alliance (Kingdom of England, Dutch Republic and Holy Roman Empire)King Charles XII of Sweden and his troops walk unopposed into Warsaw after troops capture the cityMuch of the city of Uppsala, Sweden is destroyed by fireOver 90% of the city of Bryggen, Norway is destroyed and reduced to ashes in a Great FireEnglish General John Churchill, later the Duke of Marlborough, takes command of the alliance of English, Dutch and German troops in the War of the Spanish SuccessionQueen Anne's Captain-General, John Churchill, forces the surrender of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine after a siege that began on April 18The English East India Company founds a settlement on Pulo Condore (now called Côn Sơn Island) off the coast of southern Vietnam as an entrepôt for ships travelling between India and ChinaThe premiere of the opera L'Offendere per amore overo la Telesilla by Johann Joseph Fux takes place in ViennaBattle of KliszówThe first performance of the opera Médus, roi des Mèdes by François Bouvard takes place at the Paris OperaBattle of HummelshofCzęstochowa, Poland, is captured by Swedish army during the Great Northern WarGeneral John Churchill forces the surrender of Venlo on the Meuse RiverThe founding deed of the University of Wrocław is signed by the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I of the House of Austria, King of Hungary and BohemiaSir George Rooke fails in his initial attempt to take Cadiz, but captures a Spanish treasure fleet and destroys French and Spanish warshipsBattle of FriedlingenThe opera Der Sieg der fruchtbaren Pomona by Reinhard Keiser is premiered at the Hamburg Opera for the birthday of King Frederick IV of DenmarkBattle of Vigo BayChurchill forces the surrender of LiègeEnglish troops plunder St. Augustine, Spanish FloridaSieur Juchereau, Lieutenant General of Montréal, establishes the first trading post on the Wabash River in order to trade Buffalo hides with American Indians. The site of the trading post may be the modern-day location of Vincennes, IndianaThe first performance of the opera Tancrède by André Campra takes place at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in ParisThe opera La Clemenza d'Augusto by Johann Joseph Fux is premiered in ViennaThe Dutch East India Company pinnace Amsterdam founders en route to Basra from Bombay during a storm. All hands are lostJohn Churchill is created duke of MarlboroughThe Jamaican town of Port Royal, a center of trade in the Western Hemisphere and, at the time, the largest city in the Caribbean, is destroyed by a fire. British ships in the harbor are able to rescue much of the merchandise that has been unloaded on the docks, but the inventory in marketplaces in town is destroyedIn Japan, Forty-seven rōnin assassinate daimyō Kira Yoshinaka, the enemy of their former lord Asano Naganori, at his own mansion as a vengeance; 46 of the 47 samurai commit seppuku, a ritual suicide on March 20 (February 4 in the Chinese calendar)The Recruiting Act 1703 goes into effect in England, providing for the forcible enlistment of able-bodied but unemployed men into the English Army and Royal Navy in order to fight in Queen Anne's War in North America. The Act expires at the end of February 1704The landmark English court case of Rose v Royal College of Physicians is decided by the Court of Queen's Bench, beginning the end of the monopoly that the Royal College of Physicians has over the practice of medicineAkō incidentJeanne Guyon is freed in Paris after more than seven years imprisonment for heresy in the BastilleThe Company of Quenching of Fire (i.e., a fire brigade) is founded in Edinburgh, ScotlandPortugal joins the Grand AllianceThe city of Saint Petersburg, Russia is founded, following Peter the Great's reconquest of Ingria from Sweden during the Great Northern WarBavarian troops, who during the so-called Bavarian Rummel have invaded Tyrol, besiege Kufstein. Fires break out on the outskirts that engulf the town, destroy it and reach the powder store of the supposedly impregnable fortress. The enormous gunpowder supplies explode and Kufstein has to surrender on 20 June. This same day the Tyrolese surrender in Wörgl; two days later Rattenberg is captured and Innsbruck is cleared without a fight on 25 JuneBattle of EkerenAfter their victories at the Pontlatzer Bridge and the Brenner Pass, Tyrolese farmers drive out the Bavarian Elector, Maximilian II Emanuel, from North Tyrol and thus prevent the Bavarian Army, which is allied with France, from marching on Vienna during the War of the Spanish Succession. This success, at low cost, is the signal for the rebellion of the Tyrolese against Bavaria, and Elector Maximilian II Emanuel has to flee from Innsbruck. The Bavarian Army withdraws through Seefeld in Tirol back to BavariaThe Edirne IncidentThe town of Breisach is retaken for France by Camille d'Hostun, duc de TallardHabsburg Archduke Charles is proclaimed King of Spain, but never exercises full ruleNine Roman Catholic residents of the French village of Sainte-Cécile-d'Andorge are massacred by a mob of more than 800 French Huguenot Protestants, the Camisards. A reprisal against Protestants in the nearby village of Branoux is made less than three weeks laterMore than 47 Huguenots in the village of Branoux-les-Taillades are massacred by Roman Catholic vigilantes in reprisal for the October 11 attack on nearby Sainte-Cécile, slightly more than two miles awayBattle of SpeyerbachBattle of ZvolenThe Man in the Iron Mask dies in the BastilleIsaac Newton is elected president of the Royal Society in London, a position he will hold until his death in 1727Portugal and England sign the Methuen Treaty, which gives preference to Portuguese wines imported into EnglandAhmed III succeeds the deposed Mustafa II as Ottoman EmperorEstablishment of the first school open to African-Americans in New York City by Frenchman Elias NeauRaid on DeerfieldPrince Karl of Habsburg, brother of Joseph I, the Holy Roman Emperor and a pretender to the throne of Spain, arrives in Portugal on the English warship HMS Royal Katherine as part of George Rooke's English fleet sailing into LisbonThe English Navy ships HMS Kent, HMS Bedford and HMS Antelope intercept two newly-built Spanish warships, Porta Coeli and Santa Teresa off of the coast of Cape Spartel, as the Spaniards attempt to sail into the Strait of Gibraltar. The two Spanish ships are captured after a seven-hour battle and taken toward Lisbon, but the Santa Teresa sinks along the wayBattle of BiskupiceThe first regular newspaper in the Thirteen Colonies of British North America, The Boston News-Letter, is publishedBattle of SmoleniceBattle of KoroncóKing Charles XII of Sweden forces the election of his ally Stanisław Leszczyński as King of Poland, in place of Augustus II the StrongThe Battle of Orford NessBattle of BlenheimBattle of MálagaThe siege of the French-held German town of Landau, by Holy Roman Empire troops under the command of Ludwig Wilhelm von Baden-Baden begins and lasts for more than ten weeks before the French surrender on November 23. During the siege, the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I visits the area in a newly-developed vehicle, a convertible horse-drawn carriage that has a removable roof. The style of vehicle itself is later called a "landau"Damat Hasan Pasha, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, is removed from office by Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III, and replaced by Kalaylikoz Ahmed PashaA peace treaty is signed between Prince Ferenc Rákóczi of Transylvania, and representatives of the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I at Schemnitz (now the Slovakian town of Banská Štiavnica)Battle of PoniecA Spanish Bourbon special forces battalion, guided by Simon Susarte, scales the steepest side of the Rock of Gibraltar in an attempt to surprise the British defenders, and kills the English sentries who have been manning the lookout. The attack is foiled the next day when a drummer boy, who was bringing food to the sentries, spots the invaders and raises the alarmThe inauguration of the newly built Kastelskirken takes place in Copenhagen, DenmarkGeorge Frideric Handel's first opera, Almira is premiered in HamburgThe Hester, a British 28-gun sailing ship with a crew of 70, is lost in PersiaGeorge Frideric Handel's opera Nero premieres in HamburgA French Navy fleet of 18 warships, commanded by Admiral Desjean, the Baron de Pointis arrives in the Bay of Gibraltar to aid the French and Spanish attempt to retake Gibraltar from EnglandThe Province of Carolina incorporates the town of Bath, making it the first incorporated town in present-day North Carolina. The town becomes the political center and de facto capital of the northern portion of the Province of Carolina, until Edenton is incorporated in 1722Queen Anne gives royal assent to the Alien Act 1705, setting a deadline of December 25, 1705, for Scotland's parliament to authorize negotiations for the union with England to create the Kingdom of Great Britain and, if Scotland fails to do so, to declare all Scots in England to be arrested and detained as illegal aliens until union is achievedAnne, Queen of England dissolves the English House of Commons that had been elected in 1702, and orders new electionsThe Queen's Theatre opens in Westminster to serve as an opera house, premiering with Gli amori di ergasto ("The Loves of Ergasto"), an Italian language opera by German composer Jakob "Giacomo" Greber. It remains in operation for more than 300 years, becoming Her Majesty's TheatreJoseph I succeeds his father Leopold I as the Holy Roman EmperorVoting begins for 110 constituencies of the 513-member House of Commons of England (including Wales)Voting ends in the election of the English House of Commons, with the Tories retaining their majority but losing 38 seats, while the Whigs gain 49 seats. The balance in the 513 seats is 260 for the Tories, 233 for the Whigs, 20 for other candidatesThe Pact of Genoa is signed by representatives of England and the Spanish Principality of Catalonia as a military alliance providing for English troops to be stationed in Catalonia as part of the War of Spanish SuccessionJosé de Grimaldo, the Marquis of Grimaldo, becomes the head of government of Spain after being appointed by King Philip V as the Secretary of the Universal BureauThe newly-elected English House of Commons, last to serve before the union with Scotland that produces Great Britain, is opened by Queen AnneBattle of ElixheimBattle of GemauerthofBattle of WarsawFrancis II Rákóczi is proclaimed as the ruler of Hungary by independence activists in Szécsény who are opposed to the rule of the Habsburg successor to Leopold I, the Holy Roman emperor Joseph IStanisław Leszczyński is crowned Stanisław I of PolandThe Dublin Gazette of Ireland publishes its first editionBattle of ZsibóThe premiere of the play Ulysses by Nicholas Rowe takes place in LondonThe Treaty of Warsaw was concluded between the Swedish Empire and the faction of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth loyal to Stanisław Leszczyński during the Great Northern WarBattle of Saint GotthardSendling's Christmas (night) of murderThe premiere of the play Idoménée by Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon takes place in ParisThe city of Albuquerque, New Mexico, is incorporated by governor Don Francisco Cuervo y Valdes as La Villa de Alburquerque in the Spanish colonial province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México in New Spain. Governor Cuervo sends a report on April 23 to the Spanish Crown and to New Spain's Governor, Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 10th Duke of Alburquerque announcing that the new villa, consisting of 35 families and having a population of 252 adults, has been named in honor of the DukeBattle of FraustadtMary Channing, who was pregnant at the time that she was convicted of the murder of her husband, is burned at the stake at Dorset, in front of a crowd of 10,000 onlookersConcluding that Emperor Iyasus I of Ethiopia has abdicated by retiring to a monastery, a council of high officials appoint Tekle Haymanot I Emperor of EthiopiaThe last Courts (parliament) of the Principality of Catalonia are finished; their dissolution is presided over by King Charles III of SpainBattle of RamilliesKing Frederik IV of Denmark sends the first two Protestant missionaries to India, dispatching Lutherans Heinrich Plütcshau and Bartholomeus Ziegenbalg to Denmark's colony in India, the Dansk Ostindien, based at Tharangambadi ("Tranquebar") in what is now the Tamil Nadu stateTroops dispatched from Portugal capture Madrid and proclaim the Habsburg dynasty's Archduke Charles of Austria to be the King Carlos III of Spain, after the Bourbon ruler, Philip V, has fledFlemish Jesuit missionary François Noël is welcomed in China by the Kangxi Emperor at the Forbidden City in Beijing, and discusses the Emperor's disdain over the disapproval of Jesuit accommodation of Confucian rites by the Roman Catholic ChurchThe Treaty of Union between Scotland and England is agreed upon in London, for ratification by the national legislaturesThe Spanish Bourbon armies of King Philip V retake Madrid from the Portuguese and Habsburg Austria troops that had entered the city in JuneKing Louis XIV of France makes his last visit to Paris, and gets an update on the construction of the veterans' hospital at the Dome des Invalides, which he had commissioned more than 35 years earlierThe Treaty of AltranstädtThe Parliament of Scotland votes, 116 to 83, to approve the merger of Scotland with England to form the Kingdom of Great BritainThe Battle of Santa Cruz de TenerifeFive months after having been deposed from his position as the Dalai Lama, Tsangyang Gyatso disappears while in exile in Qinghai and is presumed to have been murderedThe royal wedding of Prussia takes place in Berlin between the 18-year-old Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm and his bride Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, the 19-year-old daughter of the future King George I of Great BritainJoão V becomes the new King of Portugal upon the death of his father, Dom Pedro II, and begins a reign of 43 yearsSpanish General Alexandre Maître, Marquis de Bay leads the successful capture of Alcántara from PortugalFrançois Martin, the first Governor General of French India (now part of India's union territory of Puducherry, retires after seven years and is replaced by Pierre DulivierJohn V is crowned King of Portugal and the Algarves in LisbonThe Treaty (or Act) of Union, of the two Kingdoms of Scotland and England, is ratified by the Parliament of Scotland by a vote of 110 to 68Eighteen months after losing the Battle of Warsaw while leading a cavalry charge for Saxony against the army of Sweden during the Great Northern War, General Otto von Paykull of Swedish Livonia is beheaded outside of Stockholm following his conviction for treasonAs part of the process of the unification of Scotland and England as Great Britain, Scotland selects 16 members to sit in the House of Lords at the Palace of WestminsterThe Act of Union with Scotland is ratified by the Parliament of England; the Parliament of Scotland is adjourned for the last time on May 1, 1707Battle of AlmansaThe Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland are united as the Kingdom of Great BritainThe new sovereign state of Great Britain comes into being, as a result of the Acts of Union, which combine the Kingdoms of Scotland and England into a single united Kingdom of Great Britain and merge the Parliaments of England and Scotland, to form the Parliament of Great BritainThe soldiers and officers defending the Aragonese city of Játiva are massacred after a larger force of Castilian troops breaks through the walls at the end of a 30-day siege. The rest of the town's residents are deported, and most of the dwellings are burned, with the area being renamed "San Felipe"On Francis II Rákóczi's recommendation, and with Count Miklos Bercsényi's support, a meeting of the Hungarian independence activists, held at the village of Ónod declares the deposing of the House of Habsburg (and Joseph I, King of Hungary from the Hungarian throneYeshe Gyatso is installed as the new Dalai Lama by his father, Lha-bzang Khan, who has recently deposed the 6th Dalai Lama. Though the justification is that the 21-year-old Yeshe was the true reincarnation of the 5th Dalai Lama, Yeshe receives no recognition from Buddhists in Tibet or Mongolia and the 7th Dalai Lama is installed in 1710Charles XII of Sweden launches his campaign to conquer Russia, marching to the east from Altranstädt with 60,000 coalition troops. [6] Another 16,000 soldiers are waiting on the outskirts of Riga, guarding the Swedish supply linesVincenzo Durazzo is elected to a 2-year term as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa (including the island of Corsica), succeeding the outgoing Doge, Domenico Maria De MariThe conquest by Austrian troops, of the Italian peninsula city state of Gaeta, is accomplished after a three-month siege led by General Wirich Philipp von DaunThe Scilly naval disaster of 1707The Parliament of the Kingdom of Great Britain first meets in LondonThe Hōei earthquake (the most powerful in Japan until 2011) strikes, with an estimated local magnitude of 8.6 and kills at least 5,000 peopleThe first British Governor of Gibraltar, directly appointed by Queen Anne, Roger Elliott, takes up his residence in the Convent of the Franciscan FriarsCharles XII of Sweden and his coalition of troops begin crossing the first line of defense of the Russian Empire, the Vistula River, in their attempt to conquer RussiaCharles XII of Sweden invades Russia, by crossing the frozen Vistula River with 40,000 menHMS Falmouth, a 50-gun fourth-rate ship of the line built at Woolwich Dockyard for the Royal Navy, is launchedQueen Anne withholds Royal Assent from the Scottish Militia Bill, the last time a British monarch vetoes legislationJames Francis Edward Stuart, Jacobite pretender to the throne of Great Britain, unsuccessfully tries to land from a French fleet in the Firth of Forth in ScotlandThe first performance of George Frideric Handel's oratorio La resurrezione takes place in RomeOttoman princess Emine Sultan, daughter of Sultan Mustafa II, marries Grand Vizier Çorlulu Ali PashaThe Great Hoei fire breaks out in Kyoto, Japan, destroying the Imperial Palace and a large portion of the old capitalWager's ActionTewoflos becomes Emperor of EthiopiaBattle of OudenardeBattle of TrenčínMenorca is captured by British forcesThe Raid on HaverhillBattle of LesnayaBritish forces capture Lille after a two-month siege, although the citadel continues to hold out for another six weeksTopping out of new St Paul's Cathedral in LondonThe première of Electre by Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon takes place in ParisDeborah Churchill, British pickpocket and prostitute, is executed before a large crowd for being an accomplice to murderBattle of St. John'sWestern Europe's Great Frost of 1709, the coldest period in 500 years, begins during the night, lasting three months, with its effects felt for the entire year. In France, the Atlantic coast and Seine River freeze, crops fail, and 24,000 Parisians die. Floating ice enters the North SeaAbraham Darby I successfully produces cast iron using coke fuel at his Coalbrookdale blast furnace in Shropshire, EnglandDuring his first voyage, Captain Woodes Rogers encounters marooned privateer Alexander Selkirk, and rescues him after four years living on one of the Juan Fernández Islands, inspiring Daniel Defoe's novel Robinson Crusoe.[5][6] After sacking Guayaquil, he and Selkirk will visit the Galápagos IslandsTokugawa Ienobu becomes the sixth shōgun of the Tokugawa dynasty of Japan, after the death of the shōgun Tsunayoshi, who had been head of government since 1680Johann Friedrich Böttger reports the first production of hard-paste porcelain in Europe, at DresdenThe Raudot Ordinance of 1709 becomes law in the French colony of New France, legalizing slaveryThe first influx into Britain of poor refugee families of German Palatines from the Rhenish Palatinate arrives in England.[8] Most of them are Protestants en route to the New World coloniesTrịnh Cương becomes the new king of northern Vietnam (Đàng Ngoài) upon the death of his grandfather, Trịnh Căn, and begins a 20-year reign until his death on December 20, 1729Battle of Fort AlbanyTreaty of DresdenBattle of PoltavaChristopher Slaughterford of London is executed in Guildford for the murder of Jane Young, his fiancée. He is the first person in modern England executed for murder based exclusively on circumstantial evidence, and he maintains his innocence to the lastProduction of Eau de Cologne is begun by perfumier Johann Maria Farina in Germany, founding Johann Maria Farina gegenüber dem Jülichs-PlatzReinhard Keiser's opera Desiderius, König der Langobarden is premiered in HamburgJapan's Emperor Higashiyama abdicates after a reign of 23 years that began in 1687, and is succeeded by his son Yoshihito, who is enthroned as the Emperor NakamikadoTournai is captured by John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of SavoyThe hot air balloon of Bartolomeu de Gusmão flies in PortugalBattle of MalplaquetThe British army captures MonsFrom London, ten ships leave for the New York Colony carrying over 4,000 peopleThe first performance of the opera Agrippina by George Frideric Handel takes place at the Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo in VeniceIn Prussia, Cölln is merged with Alt-Berlin by Frederick I to form BerlinRobert Balfour, 5th Lord Balfour of Burleigh, two days before he is due to be executed for murder, escapes from the Edinburgh Tolbooth by exchanging clothes with his sisterMauritius, a Dutch colony since 1638, is abandoned by the DutchBattle of HelsingborgThe Sacheverell riots start in London with an attack on an elegant Presbyterian meeting-house in Lincoln's Inn Fields, followed by riots through the West End of LondonThe ancient Roman Pillar of the Boatmen is found during the construction of a crypt under the nave of Notre-Dame de ParisPylyp Orlyk, a Cossack of Ukraine, is elected as the Hetman of the Zaporizhian Host and immediately issues the Pacts and Constitutions of Rights and Freedoms of the Zaporizhian HostThe world's first copyright legislation, Britain's Statute of Anne, becomes effectiveAnne, Queen of Great Britain, meets the Four Mohawk KingsThe South Sea Company beginsThe Tuscarora nation sends a petition to the Province of Pennsylvania, protesting the seizure of their lands and enslavement of their people, by citizens of the Province of CarolinaKöprülüzade Numan Pasha becomes the grand vizier of the Ottoman EmpireIn the Isle of Man, Manx coins become legal tenderBattle of AlmenarBritish Royal Navy 90-gun ship HMS Vanguard is relaunched from Chatham; Vanguard sank in Chatham Dockyard in the Great Storm of 1703, but was raised in 1704 for rebuildingBattle of SaragossaIn Jonathan Swift's satirical Gulliver's Travels, fictional Gulliver sets off on his fourth and final journey, a voyage to the Land of the HouyhnhnmsBattle of Køge BayThe first visit to the Pacific islands of Palau is made by a Jesuit expedition led by Francisco Padilla; unfortunately, the ship is driven to Mindanao by a storm, leaving two priests strandedBattle of VillaviciosaThe first performance of Francesco Gasparini's most famous opera Tamerlano takes place at the Teatro San Cassiano in VeniceThomas Cary, after declaring himself Governor of North Carolina, sails an armed brigantine up the Chowan River, to attack Governor Hyde's forces fortified at Colonel Thomas Pollock's plantation. The attack fails, and Cary's forces retreatRinaldo by George Frideric Handel, the first Italian opera written for the London stage, premieres at the Queen's Theatre, HaymarketThe Spectator is founded by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele in LondonClipperton Island is rediscovered by Frenchmen Martin de Chassiron and Michel Du Bocage, who draws up the first map and claims the island for France. The island had been discovered by Alvaro Saavedra Cedrón in 1528The central tower of Elgin Cathedral in northeast Scotland collapsesThe Treaty of the Lutsk, a secret agreement between the Tsardom of Russia and the Ottoman Protectorate of Moldavia is signed in Lutsk, Poland-Lithuania (modern-day Ukraine)Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor dies, opening the way for the succession of his brother Charles VI. This complicates the ongoing War of the Spanish Succession as Charles is one of the two candidates for the Spanish throne, backed by the Grand AllianceA rabid wolf fatally injures two shepherds in Roncà, North Italy; it also attacks livestockIn Denmark, Helsingør is put under military blockade to prevent an outbreak of plague from spreading to Copenhagen; this year about one third of Helsingør's population is killed by the diseaseKing Louis XIV becomes the longest-reigning monarch in the world, surpassing the previous record of 68 years set by Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal in 683. As of 2022, Louis XIV still holds this recordThe Treaty of the Pruth is signed between the Ottoman Empire and Russia, ending the Pruth River CampaignThe Dutch East India Company trading ship Zuytdorp leaves the Netherlands on an ill-fated voyage to Indonesia bearing a load of freshly minted silver coins. The wreck site remains unknown until the mid-20th century, on a remote part of the Western Australian coast between Kalbarri and Shark BayThe Capture of the galleon San JoaquinThe Quebec Expedition,The South Sea Company receives a Royal Charter in BritainJohn Lawson, Christoph von Graffenried, two African American slaves and two Native Americans leave on an exploration expedition from New Bern, North Carolina, and travel north by canoe up the Neuse RiverTuscarora natives capture John Lawson, Christoph von Graffenried and their expeditionary party, and bring them to CatechnaTuscarora natives kill Lawson. Von Graffenried and one African American slave are known to have been set freeBishop Bogusław Gosiewski sells the town of Maladzyechna in the Minsk Region of Belarus to the mighty Ogiński familyHMS Feversham is wrecked on Scaterie Island, Nova Scotia with the loss of 102 lives245 people are killed in a crush on the Guillottière bridge [fr] in Lyon, France, caused when a large crowd returning from a festival on the other side of the Rhône become trapped against an obstruction in the middle of the bridge caused by a collision between a carriage and a cartWoodes Rogers returns to England after a successful round-the-world privateering cruise against Spain, carrying loot worth £150,000The southwest spire of Southwell Minster in Nottinghamshire, England is struck by lightning, resulting in a fire that spreads to the nave and tower, destroying roofs, bells, clock and organThe Dutch East India Company ship Liefde runs aground and sinks off Out Skerries, Shetland, with the loss of all but one of her 300 crewThe Battle of WismarIn the Parliament of Great Britain the Earl of Nottingham successfully proposes a "No Peace Without Spain" amendmentThe Immaculate Conception Cathedral, Comayagua in Honduras, one of the oldest cathedrals in Central America, is inauguratedWall Street in New York City becomes the city's first official slave market for the sale and rental of enslaved Africans and IndiansThe Old Pummerin, a massive bell cast from 208 captured cannons, is consecrated by Bishop Franz Ferdinand Freiherr von Rummel in preparation for its installation in St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna (the Stephansdom)The rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral in London to a design by Sir Christopher Wren is declared complete by Parliament; Old St Paul's had been destroyed by the 1666 Great Fire of LondonThe premiere of the opera Idoménée by André Campra takes place at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in ParisA military engineering school is established in Moscow which is to become the A.F. Mozhaysky Military-Space AcademyThe Old Pummerin, a 18,161 kg bell newly installed in the Stephansdom, St. Stephen's Cathedral, in Vienna, is rung for the first time to mark the entry of Charles VI to Vienna from Frankfurt after his coronation as Emperor. It takes a quarter-hour for 16 men pulling on the bell rope to swing the heavy bell back-and-forth enough for the clapper to strike; the resulting forces endanger the tower so the architect orders that in future the bell be rung only by pulling its clapperScottish Episcopalians Act 1711 comes into effect, leading to incorporation of the Scottish Episcopal ChurchSweden temporarily adopts the rare February 30, as a day to adjust the Swedish Calendar back to the Julian calendarHMS Dragon, a 38-gun fourth rate frigate of the Royal Navy, is wrecked on Les Casquets, rocks to the west of AlderneyAnne, Queen of Great Britain administers the Royal touch (a ritual with the intent to cure illness) for the last time; 300 scrofulous people are touched, the last of whom is Samuel JohnsonThe New York Slave Revolt of 1712Battle of FladstrandPeter the Great moves the capital of Russia from Moscow to Saint PetersburgCharles VI, Holy Roman Emperor is crowned King of HungaryReus in Catalonia, Spain is given the title of imperial city by Elisabeth Christine, wife of Archduke CharlesThe newly built St Ann's Church, Manchester is consecrated by the Bishop of ChesterThe Royal Navy 50-gun ship HMS Advice is launched at Deptford DockyardJesus College, Oxford, inherits the extensive library of its Principal Jonathan Edwards on his deathBattle of DenainBattle of VillmergenThe Stamp Act of 1712 is passed in the United Kingdom, imposing a tax on publishers, particularly of newspapersThe Peace of Aarau is signed by Catholics and Protestants, ending the Toggenburg War and establishing Protestant dominance in Switzerland, while preserving the rights of CatholicsThe Royal Navy 60-gun ship HMS Rippon is launched at Deptford DockyardIn Scotland a warrant is issued for the arrest of outlaw Rob Roy MacGregor by Sir James Stewart (Lord Advocate)King Philip V of Spain establishes the Biblioteca Nacional de España as the Palace Public Library (Biblioteca Pública de Palacio) in MadridThe Bandbox Plot aims to kill British Lord Treasurer Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford but is foiled by Jonathan Swift (author of “Gulliver’s Travels”)The first performance of George Frideric Handel's opera Il pastor fido takes place at the Queen's Theatre in the Haymarket, LondonThe charter of Buchach Monastery in Ukraine, founded by Stefan Aleksander Potocki and his wife Joanna née Sieniawska, is signed in LublinBattle of GadebuschThe premiere of the opera Callirhoé by André Cardinal Destouches takes place at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in ParisColonel James Moore leads the Carolina militia out of Albemarle County, North Carolina, in a second offensive against the Tuscarora. Heavy snows force the troops to take refuge in Fort Reading, on the Pamlico RiverSkirmish at BenderThe Carolina militia under Colonel James Moore leaves Fort Reading, to continue the campaign against the TuscaroraFrederick William I of Prussia begins his reignColonel James Moore's Carolina militia lays siege to the Tuscaroran stronghold of Fort Neoheroka, located a few miles up Contentnea Creek from Fort HancockColonel James Moore's Carolina militia launches a major offensive against Fort NeoherokaFort Neoheroka falls to the Carolina militia, effectively ending the Tuscarora nation's military strength. Two Tuscaroran allies, the Machapunga and Coree tribes, continue offensive actions against North CarolinaFirst Treaty of Utrecht between Great Britain and Spain: Philip V is accepted by Britain and Austria as king of Spain; Spain cedes Gibraltar and Menorca to BritainThe Second Treaty of Utrecht between Great Britain and France ends the War of the Spanish Succession.[3] France cedes Newfoundland, Acadia, Hudson Bay and St Kitts to Great BritainFirst performance, in London, of Joseph Addison's libertarian play Cato, a Tragedy, which will be influential on both sides of the AtlanticWith no living male heirs, Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, issues the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, to ensure one of his daughters will inherit the Habsburg landsIn the Great Northern War, a fleet of the Russian Navy, transporting 12,000 soldiers, sails from Kronstadt to attack the Swedish Army at HelsinkiThe Parliament of Ireland is dissolved by Queen Anne and new elections are setKing Philip V of Spain issues an auto accordado that changes the order of succession for the Spanish throne allowing a female descendant within the House of Bourbon to rule. The change will allow his great-great-granddaughter to ascend the throne in 1833 as Queen Isabella IIOttone in villa, the first opera by composer Antonio Vivaldi, is given its initial performance, debuting at the Teatro delle Grazie in VicenzaThe Russian fleet lands a force of 10,000 men at Pernå on the southern coast of FinlandColonel James Moore leads the Carolina militia into the Pamlico Peninsula to defeat the Machapunga and Coree tribesFrench residents of Acadia are given one year to declare allegiance to Great Britain, or leave Nova ScotiaThe Junta de Braços (parliament) of the Principality of Catalonia votes in favour of staying in the War of the Spanish Succession against Philip V of Spain. Army of Catalonia raisedThe Treaty of Portsmouth brings an end to Queen Anne's WarThe Parliament of Great Britain, third since the Act of Union, is dissolvedVoting begins in the 1713 British general election in various constituencies and continues to November 12The Carolina militia, led by Colonel James Moore, returns to South Carolina, after mixed success in the campaign against the Machapunga and Coree tribesThe Treaty of Schwedt is signed between Russia and Brandenburg-Prussia, with the latter accepting the annexation of Baltic territories and paying Russia expenses in return for the southern part of Pomerania, recently taken from Sweden in the Great Northern WarBattle of PälkäneThe Dublin election riotThe 1713 British general election concludes with the conservative Tories winning 358 of the 558 available seats in the House of Commons, and the liberal Whigs having 200As part of the agreements made at Utrecht to end the War of the Spanish Succession, Great Britain and Spain sign a treaty of commerce and navigationThe rebellion of Richard Raworth, Deputy Governor of Fort St. David (now abandoned and in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu near Cuddalore), against the British East India Company comes to an end after two months when forces sent by Bridish Madras Governor Edward Harrison to negotiate a settlement allowing Raworth to surrender in return for amnestyVictor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy is crowned King of Sicily at Palermo, and his wife Anne Marie is crowned as Queen consort.[7] The coronation follows Spain's recognition of Sicilian independence, effective September 22, as part of the Treaty of UtrechtRussia's Tsar Peter the Great issues a decree requiring compulsory education in mathematics for children of government officials and nobility, applying to children between the ages of 10 and 15 years oldBattle of NapueThe Treaty of Rastatt is signed between Austria and France, concluding the War of the Spanish Succession between them. Austria receives the Spanish territories in Italy (the Kingdom of Naples, Duchy of Milan and Kingdom of Sardinia), as well as the Southern Netherlands; and from France, Freiburg and Landau. The Austrian Habsburg Empire reaches its largest territorial extent yet, with Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor succeeding Philip V of Spain, as ruler in the ceded territoriesFrance signs five separate treaties— with Great Britain, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia and Savoy— to end hostilities in the War of the Spanish Succession following the negotiations of the Peace of UtrechtAnne, Queen of Great Britain, refuses to allow members of the House of Hanover to settle in Britain during her lifetimeThe city of Kassel in Germany inaugurates the summer tradition of the "water stairs" or "great cascades" (Grossen Kaskaden) emptying from the base of the Hercules monument down to the Wilhelmshöhe castleIn France, Henri-Charles du Cambout de Coislin, the Roman Catholic Bishop of Metz, condemns the papal bull Unigenitus, issued by Pope Clement XI against the 1671 commentary by Pasquier Quesnel of the four Gospels and inflaming the Jansenist controversySpain and the Netherlands sign a peace treaty to end hostilities between those two nations in the War of the Spanish SuccessionThe Parliament of Great Britain votes "to offer a reward for such person or persons as shall discover the Longitude" (£10,000 for any method capable of determining a ship's longitude within 1 degree; £15,000, within 40 minutes, and £20,000 within ½ a degree)Battle of GangutGeorg Ludwig von Braunschweig-Lüneburg, Elector of Hanover, becomes King George I of Great Britain and Ireland, on the death of Queen Anne. Anne's death brings an end to the reign of the House of Stuart, in that her half-brother James Francis Edward Stuart, the eldest son of James II of England, has been ineligible for the British throne based on the Act of Settlement 1701 had barred members of the Roman Catholic church from becoming monarchs. George of Hanover, as great-grandson of James I of England and aGeorge I, the new King of Great Britain and Ireland, arrives in Britain for the first time in his life, after having departed Hannover and sailing from the NetherlandsThe Cossacks of the Russian Empire kill about 800 people overnight on the Finnish island of HailuotoThe coronation of George I of Great Britain and Ireland takes place in Westminster Abbey, a little less than three months after George became the new British monarchFour Dutch investors, led by brothers Nicolaas and Hendrik van Hoorn, purchase the South American colony of Berbice from French mercenary Jacques Cassard, who had captured the colony from the Van Peere family. A century later, in 1815, the land is ceded to Great Britain and later merged with neighboring colonies to form what is now GuyanaKing Philip V of Spain issues a decree reorganizing the Spanish government to create four ministries, with the Secretary of State being the chief minister, predecessor to the office of Prime Minister of Spain. José de Grimaldo becomes the first person to have the chief ministryA fire in London, described by some as the worst since the Great Fire of London (1666) almost 50 years earlier, starts on Thames Street when fireworks prematurely explode "in the house of Mr. Walker, an oil man"; more than 100 houses are consumed in the blaze, which continues over to Tower Street before it is controlledVoting begins for the British House of Commons and continues for the next 46 days in different constituencies on different daysThe Tuscarora and their allies sign a peace treaty with the Province of North Carolina, and agree to move to a reservation near Lake Mattamuskeet, effectively ending the Tuscarora War. Large numbers of Tuscarora subsequently move to New YorkVoting for the British House of Commons concludes, with the liberal Whig Party winning 341 of the 558 seats, and reducing the conservative Tory Party share to 217 seats. Spencer Compton, the Earl of Wilmington, becomes the Speaker of the House of CommonsJames Stuart, the "Old Pretender" attempting to restore the House of Stuart to control of Great Britain as King James III of England and James VIII of Scotland, meets with Pope Clement XI for the assistance of the Roman Catholic Church in the Jacobite risingHenry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, flees from Great Britain to France. His part in secret negotiations with France, leading to the Treaty of Utrecht, has cast suspicion on him in the eyes of the Whig government of Britain. He becomes secretary of state to the Pretender, James Edward StuartIn the British colonial Province of South Carolina, the Yamasee Confederation launches an attack on English settlements in disputed territory on Good Friday, launching the two-year long Yamasee War. The day before, agents Thomas Nairne, William Bray and Samuel Warner had participated in peace negotiations with the Yamasee at Pocotaligo. [3] Bray and Warner are killed that day, while Nairne is tortured to death and dies on April 17Battle of Fehmarn1715 England riotsKing Philip, ruler of the Kingdom of Castile and the Kingdom of Aragon unifies the two governments into a single state, centralizing rule of a unified Kingdom of SpainTsar Peter I of Russia witnesses the attempt of 45 Dutch and English ships to enter the small harbor at Saint Petersburg and decides that additional harbors are necessary for Russia to be able import Western goodsBritain's Treason Act 1714 takes effect, providing for forfeiture to the British Crown of property owned by any person convicted of treason in the Kingdom. The Act remains in effect until June 24, 1718A Spanish treasure fleet of 12 ships, under General Don Juan Ubilla, leaves Havana, Cuba for Spain. Seven days later, 11 of them sink in a storm off the coast of Florida (some centuries later, treasure salvage is found from these wrecks)Old Dock, Liverpool, England, the world's first enclosed commercial wet dock (Thomas Steers, engineer), opensKing Louis XIV of France dies after a reign of 72 years, leaving his throne to his 5 year old great-grandson Louis XV. Philippe d'Orléans, the nephew of Louis XIV, serves as RegentLess than two weeks after King Louis XIV's death, Daniel Voysin de la Noiraye, France's Secretary of State for War since 1709, steps down at the request of the new regent, the Duke of OrleansDuring the rebellion in Great Britain by supporters of the Pretender to the Throne, James Stuart, the Jacobites raid the Scottish parish of Burntisland, capture an arsenal of weapons, and begin an occupation of the area on October 9 in the name of Stuart as King James VIII of ScotlandWilliam Aislabie resigns as the British East India Company's administrator of Bombay and the company's territories and is replaced at year's end by Charles BooneWilliam Mackintosh of Borlum, leader of the Jacobite rising against Great Britain, lands with 1,500 men in Scotland after crossing the Firth of Forth from FranceBaron Onslow resigns as Great Britain's Chancellor of the Exchequer and is replaced by future Prime Minister Robert WalpoleThe Treaty of Greifswald is signed between Russia and the Electorate of Hanover, with George I of Great Britain and Hanover agreeing to Russia's annexation of Swedish Ingria and Estonia, and Hanover claiming the Bremen-Verden Swedish duchies of Bremen and VerdenBattle of SheriffmuirThe Third Barrier Treaty is signed by Britain, the Holy Roman Empire and the Dutch RepublicThe application of the Nueva Planta decrees, in Majorca and the other Balearic Islands (formerly under the Crown of Aragon), bring them under the laws of the Crown of CastileJames Edward Stuart rejoins Jacobite rebels in Scotland,[2] but fails to rouse his armySwedish troops occupy NorwayThe application of the Nueva Planta decrees to Catalonia make it subject to the laws of the Crown of Castile, and abolishes the Principality of Catalonia as a political entity, concluding the unification of Spain under Philip VThe Tugaloo massacre changes the course of the Yamasee War, allying the Cherokee nation with the British province of South Carolina against the Creek Indian nationThe town of Crieff, Scotland, is burned to the ground by Jacobites returning from the Battle of SheriffmuirJames Edward Stuart flees from Scotland to France with a handful of supporters, following the failure of the Jacobite rising of 1715Jacobite leaders James Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Derwentwater and William Gordon, 6th Viscount of Kenmure are executed in LondonKing Charles XII of Sweden leads an invasion of Norway, crossing the border at Basmo, near the modern-day town of MarkerSiege of InvernessSimon Fraser, a former Scottish rebel who had helped end the Siege of Inverness during the first Jacobite rising, is given a pardon by King George I of Great BritainAustria, ruled by King Charles VI, renews its alliance with the Republic of Venice, leading the Ottoman Empire, ruled by Ahmed III, to declare warJohn Law founds the Banque Générale Privée in ParisTwo regular companies of field artillery, each 100 men strong, are raised at Woolwich, by Royal Warrant of King George I of Great BritainJohn Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, suffers a paralytic strokeThe new Tokugawa Shogun of Japan, Tokugawa Yoshimune, assumes control of the monarchy's military after the illness and death of the six-year-old Ietsugu, last of the male descendants of Tokugawa Ieyasu.[14] Yoshimune's ascendancy begins Year 1 of the Kyōhō Era, which continues until Year 21 in 1736With the Holy Roman Empire having been ceded the "Southern Netherlands" (now Belgium) from Spain, Prince Eugene of Savoy arrives in Brussels as the first Governor-General of the Austrian Netherlands. Eugene soon returns home and leaves administration of the area to a dictatorial Hercule-Louis TurinettiPrince Ernest Augustus is created Duke of York and Albany, in the peerage of Great BritainBattle of DynekilenNatchez, one of the oldest towns on the Mississippi River, is founded by French civilians at the site of Fort RosalieGeorge Seton, 5th Earl of Winton, under sentence of death for his part in the Jacobite rising of 1715, escapes from the Tower of London and flees into exile on the continentBattle of PetrovaradinCharles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, returns from Italy"Maria", an African slave of the Dutch West India Company on the Caribbean island of Curaçao, murders the plantation overseer, Christiaan Muller, then leads a rebellion, killing Muller's family and much of the white staff on the company's plantation. The uprising is suppressed after 10 days, and Maria is later executed by burning at the stake on November 9Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia, eldest son of the Tsar Peter the Great and heir to the throne, flees from Saint Petersburg with his mistress, Efrosinya Fedorova, along with her brother and three servants. After spending more than a year in Austria, he returns to Russia where he is arrested and dies in prison in 1718Two new laws go into effect in the Highlands of Scotland to prevent a threat to Britain's ruling House of Hanover by the Jacobites who supported the restoration of the House of Stuart. The Disarming Act requires government authorization to carry swords and firearms, and the amendments to the Treason Act 1714 permit trials for treason to take place in any court in England, regardless of where the crime was committedFifty people are killed, and 150 houses burned, when a fire breaks out in Wapping, London. The blaze comes two days after a fire at the Spring Gardens at St. James's, London, which destroyed the French Chapel there and which was put out by several rescuers, including the future King George IICharles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, is demoted from his office as Secretary of State for the Northern Department in the British government, and replaced by James Stanhope, 1st Earl StanhopeCount Carl Gyllenborg, the Swedish ambassador to the Kingdom of Great Britain, is arrested in London over a plot to assist the Pretender to the British throne, James Francis Edward StuartGreat Britain, France and the Dutch Republic sign the Triple Alliance,[1] in an attempt to maintain the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), Britain having signed a preliminary alliance with France on November 28 (November 17) 1716The Silent Sejm, in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, marks the beginning of the Russian Empire's increasing influence and control over the CommonwealthFollowing the treaty between France and Britain, the Pretender James Stuart leaves France, and seeks refuge with Pope Clement XIDancer John Weaver performs in the first ballet in Britain, shown at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, The Loves of Mars and VenusBenjamin Hoadly, Bishop of Bangor, brings the Bangorian Controversy within the Church of England into the open by delivering a sermon to, and supposedly at the request of, King George I of Great Britain, on The Nature of the Kingdom of Christ with the text "My kingdom is not of this world" (John 18:36), concluding there is no Biblical justification for church governmentThe Whydah Gally, flagship of "Black Sam" Bellamy, is wrecked in a storm off Wellfleet, Massachusetts. The Whydah sinks with a reputed 4+1⁄2 tons of treasure on board, and all but two of her crew are lost, including BellamySpain unites its South American colonies, as the Viceroyalty of New GranadaThe Premier Grand Lodge of England, the Modern and first Free-Masonic Grand Lodge (which merges with the Ancient Grand Lodge of England in 1813 to form the United Grand Lodge of England), is founded in LondonWater Music by George Frederick Handel is first performed, on a Thames barge in LondonKing George I of Great Britain issues the "Proclamation for Suppressing of Pirates in the West Indies", an offer of amnesty to pirates, declaring that any pirates who surrender themselves to the government of Britain or one of its overseas territories, on or before September 5, 1718, "shall have Our Gracious Pardon of and for his or their Piracy or Piracies" committed before January 5, 1718. The amnesty is later extended to July 1, 1719The first known Druid revival ceremony is held by John Toland at Primrose Hill, in London, at the Autumnal Equinox, to found the Mother Grove, what will later become the Ancient Order of DruidsKing Philip V of Spain orders the closure of all universities in Catalonia, including the historic Estudi General de LleidaTrial begins in Boston for six pirates who had survived the April 26 wreck of Samuel Bellamy's ships Whydah and the Mary Anne. Five of them (John Brown, Hendrick Quintor, Thomas Baker, Peter Cornelius Hoof and John Shuan) are convicted on October 22 of piracy and robbery and hanged on November 15The Spanish conquest of Sardinia, at this time part of the Holy Roman Empire, is finished two months after Spanish forces had landed on the island on August 22, as the last Sardinian outpost, Castelsardo, surrendersPirates led by Edward Teach, more popularly referred to as "Blackbeard", and Benjamin Hornigold capture the French slave transport Concorde near island of Saint Vincent the West Indies.[8] Blackbeard renames the vessel Queen Anne's Revenge, adds to its armaments, and makes it his flagship.[9] Hornigold soon accepts a British amnesty for all pirates, and Blackbeard teams up with Stede Bonnet and begins plundering ships approaching North American portsKing George I of Great Britain banishes his son and daughter-in-law, George, Prince of Wales and Caroline of Ansbach, from the royal household after the Prince threatens the King's personal assistant, the Duke of Newcastle, the royal Lord Chamberlain. The altercation takes place at the baptismal ceremony for the Prince's newborn son, George WilliamThe Christmas Flood of 1717Jeremias III reclaims his role as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, chief leader within the Eastern Orthodox Church, 16 days after the Metropolitan Cyril IV of Pruoza had engineered an election to become the PatriarchThe reign of Victor Amadeus over the principality of Anhalt-Bernburg (now within the state of Saxony-Anhalt in northeastern Germany) ends after 61 years and 7 months. He had ascended the throne on September 22, 1656. He is succeeded by his son Karl FrederickManuel II (Mpanzu a Nimi) becomes the new monarch of the Kingdom of Kongo (located in western Africa at present day Angola) when King Pedro IV (Nusamu a Mvemba) dies after a reign of 22 years. Manuel reigns until 1743Anton Florian becomes the new Prince of Liechtenstein, succeeding Joseph WenzelEdward Wortley Montagu, the four-year-old son of the British Ambassador to Turkey, becomes the first British person to be inoculated with the smallpox vaccine, administered by Dr. Charles Maitland at the request of Edward's mother, Lady Mary Wortley MontaguThe Privy Council of the United Kingdom, at the time the British Government prior to the creation of the officer of Prime Minister, is reorganized, with a reorganized Second Stanhope–Sunderland ministry. Secretary of State for the Northern Department Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland succeeds James Stanhope as the new First Lord of the Treasury, and Stanhope takes Sunderland's jobGreat Britain, France and the Dutch Republic agree on the phasing out of the authority of the House of Medici over the semi-independent Grand Duchy of Tuscany by declaring that Gian Gastone de' Medici will be the last of the Medici family to rule the Italian duchy and that Spain's House of Borbón will eventually control the Tuscan monarchy. Don Carlos of Spain, the two-year old son of King Philip V, is designated as the eventual heir, despite the objections of the 75-year old Grand Duke, Cosimo III de' MediSan Antonio is founded by Father Antonio de San Buenaventura y Olivares with the construction of the initial Mission San Antonio de ValeroThe settlement of New Orleans is founded in New FranceSailing the Queen Anne's Revenge English pirate Edward Teach ("Blackbeard") leads 400 sailors in four ships, and blockades the port of Charleston, South Carolina for an entire week, plundering all arriving ships.[7] After their departure, Queen Anne's Revenge and Adventure are both lost at Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina; a week later. Blackbeard allows Stede Bonnet to command the Revenge (which is renamed the Royal James) once again. Bonnet rescues 25 sailors abandoned by Blackbeard on a sandbar and continuPirates "Blackbeard" and Stede Bonnet accidentally run aground in the ship Queen Anne's Revenge after sailing into Topsail Inlet in the British colony of North Carolina. Learning of the royal pardon available to all pirates who surrender before September 5, Teach negotiates a settlement with Colonial Governor Charles Eden for a pardon for himself, Bonnet and the rest of his crew in return for the Governor receiving some of the pirates' plunderThe Treaty of Baden is signed, ending the Toggenburg WarThe Treaty of Passarowitz, ending the Austro-Turkish War, is signedAt the behest of Tsar Peter the Great, the construction of the Kadriorg Palace, dedicated to his wife Catherine, began in TallinnBattle of Cape PassaroIn France, Armande Félice de La Porte Mazarin and the Vicomtesse de Polignac, both mistresses of the Duc de Richelieu, fight a duel with pistols at the Bois de Boulogne near Paris. Lady Mazarin, who had initiated the duel, is wounded in the shoulder and both survive. Richelieu, though impressed by the willingness of the ladies to fight over his affections, comments Je ne sacrifierai pas un de mes cheveux, ni à l’une, ni à l’autre ("I will not sacrifice anything, not to one, nor to the other.")Stede Bonnet and his crew are captured near the mouth of the Cape Fear River and taken to Charleston, South Carolina, where they are tried for piracy. All but four are found guilty and sentenced to death (with 22 hanged on November 8), but Bonnet escapes from prison on October 24Voltaire's first play, Oedipus, premières at the Comédie-Française in Paris. This is his first use of the pseudonymCiting violations of the amnesty agreement with Blackbeard, Virginia Governor Alexander Spotswood sends a Royal Navy contingent to North Carolina, where they battle Blackbeard and his crew in Ocracoke Inlet. Blackbeard is killed in action, after receiving five musketball wounds and twenty sword lacerationsFollowing the death of Charles XII on November 30, his sister Ulrika Eleonora proclaims herself Queen regnant of Sweden, as the news of her brother's death reaches StockholmStede Bonnet is hanged at Charleston, after being recapturedThe Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of Great Britain and Dutch Republic join the Kingdom of France in formally declaring war on Spain, launching the War of the Quadruple AllianceThe Principality of Liechtenstein is created, within the Holy Roman EmpireThe Riksdag of the Estates recognizes Ulrika Eleonora's claim to the Swedish throne, after she has agreed to sign a new Swedish constitution. Thus, she is recognized as queen regnant of SwedenThe first Treaty of Stockholm is signedThe coronation of Ulrika Eleonora as Queen of Sweden takes place in StockholmThe French army under James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick invades the Basque provinces of Spain, with 20,000 troops crossing into NavarreIn Louisiana (New France), Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville's brother Serigny arrives on a French man-of-war, bringing news that war had been declared between France and Spain (since December 1718)King Philip V of Spain departs Madrid and leads 15,000 men of the Spanish Army into Navare to fight the French under BerwickIn Louisiana (New France), Bienville, from Mobile, captures Pensacola, but Pensacola is later recaptured by the Spanish, and again re-taken by BienvilleBattle of Osel IslandBattle of Glen ShielBattle of FrancavillaThe Battle of StäketPrincess Maria Josepha of Austria, at one time the heir presumptive to the throne of Austria's Habsburg Empire, marries Frederick Augustus, Elector of Saxony ten days after renouncing any claim to the Austrian throneFernando Manuel de Bustillo Bustamante y Rueda, the Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines, is assassinated in a bloody coup d'etat by supporters of the Archbishop of Manila, whom Bustamante had imprisonedThe British Army, under the command of Major General George Wade, invades and captures the forts of Vigo on the Atlantic coast of SpainThe Red Canal is opened in the Russian capital, Saint Petersburg, after seven years of construction, at a ceremony in the presence of the Tsar Peter the GreatSweden and Denmark sign an armistice, halting combat in the Great Northern War between them, with final terms agreed to in the Treaty of Frederiksborg on July 3, 1720Andrew Bradford publishes the American Weekly Mercury, Pennsylvania's first newspaperSweden and Prussia sign the Treaty of Stockholm (Great Northern War)Edmond Halley is appointed as Astronomer Royal for EnglandThe Treaty of The Hague is signed between Spain, Britain, France, Austria and the Dutch Republic, ending the War of the Quadruple AllianceQueen Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden resigns, to let her husband Frederick I take over as king of Sweden. She had desired a joint rule, in a similar manner to William III and Mary II in Britain, but as the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates refuses this, she abdicates in her husband's favour insteadThe Riksdag of the Estates elects Frederick I new King of SwedenRobert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of Great Britain (although this is more a term of disparagement at this time)The deadliest outbreak of smallpox in the history of Boston begins when the British ship HMS Sea Horse arrives in Boston Harbor with a crew of sailors who had survived a smallpox epidemic. One of the Seahorse crew who had cleared quarantine develops symptoms the next day and infects other people in a lodging house. Over the next 10 months, 5,759 cases of smallpox are recorded in Boston and 844 people die of the diseasePirates John Taylor and Olivier Levasseur capture the 700-ton Portuguese galleon Nossa Senhora do Cabo at Réunion. The total value of treasure on board (from Goa) is estimated as between £100,000 and £875,000, one of the largest pirate hauls everPope Innocent XIII succeeds Pope Clement XI, as the 244th popeDr. Zabdiel Boylston of the Harvard University School of Medicine begins the first public inoculation campaign in order to slow the smallpox epidemic in Boston, giving a vaccine to his own son, and then to his slave and the slave's infant sonThe Spanish expedition led by Coahuila Governor José de Azlor y Virto de Vera, sent to recapture Texas from the French, encounters Neches River the smaller French force of Louis Juchereau de St. Denis, who had led the French expansion westward from the Louisiana territory. Realizing that his forces are badly outnumbered, St. Denis abandons hope of colonizing the east Texas territory and Azlor retakes the areaThe Treaty of Nystad is signed, ending the Great Northern WarThe Romanov and architect of the Great Northern War Peter I, is proclaimed the first Emperor of All the Russias. This replaces the 174-year-long Tsardom of Russia with the Russian Empire (it collapses in 1917)Philip V of Spain signs a Royal Decree in Lerma, transforming the Seminary of Saint Rose of Lima in Caracas into the Universidad Real y Pontificia de CaracasThe coronation of King Frederick I of Sweden takes place in Stockholm, six weeks after his rule beganThe Treaty of The Hague, signed between Spain and the Quadruple Alliance (Britain, France, the Netherlands and Austria) on February 17, goes into effect. Spain renounces its claims to the Italian possessions of the French throne, and Austria and the Duchy of Savoy trade Sicily for SardiniaThe British privateer Speedwell, captained by George Shelvocke, is wrecked on the uninhabited island of Más a Tierra, the same island where Alexander Selkirk was marooned for five years; the island off of the coast of Chile is later called Robinson Crusoe Island. The crew is marooned for five months but is able to build a boat from timbers salvaged from the wreck, and is able to escape the island on October 6British silversmiths are once again allowed to use sterling silver after 24 years of being limited to a higher quality (but softer) Britannia silverThe British Parliament approves the Bubble Act (officially the Royal Exchange and London Assurance Corporation Act 1719), prohibiting the formation of joint-stock companies without prior approval by royal charterThe "South Sea Bubble", the phenomenal growth of the South Sea Company, reaches its peak as South Sea stock is priced at £1,060 a share. By the end of September, as panic sales are made, the price falls to £150Under the authority of the Bubble Act, the Lords Justices in Great Britain attempt to curb some of the excesses of the stock markets during the "South Sea Bubble". They dissolve a number of petitions for patents and charters, and abolish more than 80 joint-stock companies of dubious merit, but this has little effect on the creation of "Bubbles", ephemeral joint-stock companies created during the hysteria of the timesThe Treaty of Frederiksborg is signed between Denmark and Sweden, ending the Great Northern WarBattle of Grengam"South Sea Bubble": The English stock market crashes, with dropping prices for stock in the South Sea CompanyThe Committee of Inquiry on the collapse of the South Sea Company in Great Britain publishes its findingsJames Stanhope, chief minister of Great Britain, dies a day after collapsing while vigorously defending his government's conduct over the "South Sea Bubble" in ParliamentJohann Sebastian Bach's Brandenburg concertos are completed, and dedicated to Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg-SchwedtThe Treaty of Saint Petersburg is signed in Russia, ending the Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)Russia's Emperor Peter the Great authorizes an incentive for men of Serbia to join a new Russian Imperial Army unit, the Serbian Hussar Regiment. The Emperor sends Jovan Albanez to recruit new officers and troops with a grant of farmable land in Russia, and 1,070 take advantage of the offer over the next two yearsThe Province of Carolina charters New Bern as Newbern (the town later becomes the capital of North Carolina until Raleigh is founded)Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, regent of France from 1715 to 1723, and Prime Minister since August 10, dies at the age of 49 at VersaillesDarzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes, BWV 40, a cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach for the Second Day of Christmas, is first performed in LeipzigKing Philip V of Spain abdicates the throne in favour of his 16-year-old son Louis IThe Dutch East India Company cargo ship Fortuyn, on its maiden voyage, departs from the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa after a layover of 16 days following its arrival from the Netherlands. With a crew of 225 commanded by Pieter Westrik, the ship departs for Batavia in the Dutch East Indies and is never seen againBruno Mauricio de Zabala, Spanish Captain general of the Río de la Plata, forces the Portuguese to abandon their fortified settlement at what will become the city of Montevideo in UruguayDaniel Defoe's novel Moll Flanders is published anonymously in LondonBattle of Cape LopezPeter the Great, Emperor of All Russia, announces that his heir to the throne will be his 4-year old grandson, Prince Pyotr AlekseivichThe first Silence Dogood letter, written by Benjamin Franklin, is printedDutch admiral Jacob Roggeveen lands on what is now Easter IslandPennsylvania colony enacts a statute, requiring all persons importing any person previously convicted of sodomy, to pay £5 for each such incoming person1722 British general election (began March 19) closes with Prime Minister Robert Walpole's Whig Party increasing its majority in the House of Commons of Great Britain, capturing 48 additional seats from the Tory Party and having a 389 to 169 advantagePirate Edward Low and his men sail the stolen ship Rebecca into Port Roseway near modern Shelburne, Nova Scotia, where 13 fishing boats from Massachusetts are anchored. Over the next few days, the pirates board the boats and lay siege to them. On June 19, Low confiscates the schooner Mary from its owner, Joseph Dolliber, outfits it with cannons and renames it the Fancy. Eight of the fishermen are taken hostage as the stolen vessel departs, including Philip AshtonFrancis Atterbury, Anglican Bishop of Rochester and Dean of Westminster, is arrested in his deanery and confined in the Tower of London for treason, accused of leading the Jacobite "Atterbury Plot" in support of the pretender James Francis Edward Stuart[5] with the aim of overthrowing the House of Hanover and King George I of Great Britain and restoring the House of Stuart by installing Prince James as "King James III"La Nouvelle-Orléans (New Orleans), recently established by France as the capital of the Louisiana Territory is hit by what is later called the "Great Hurricane of 1722", starting with 7 feet (2.1 m) high waves, followed by winds in excess of 100 miles per hour (160 km/h). By September 24, "Almost every public building in New Orleans, from the hospital to the cathedral" is "either unroofed or totally ruinedRussia's Emperor Peter the Great issues an order establishing the Caspian Flotilla during its war against Persia to gain complete control of the landlocked Caspian SeaThe Dutch East India Company cargo ship Schoonenberg runs aground in South Africa's Struis Bay and is looted by most of its 110 crew, beginning a legend and questions of whether the wreck was part of a conspiracy or simply an accident. Almost 300 years later, the event is reconstructed in detail by investigatorsAfter the longest reign by a Chinese Emperor in history (61 years), the Kangxi Emperor dies, and is succeeded by his son Yinzhen as Yongzheng EmperorEnglish-born pirate Edward Low intercepts the Portuguese ship Nostra Signiora de Victoria. After the Portuguese captain throws his treasure of 11,000 gold coins into the sea rather than surrendering it, Low orders the captain's brutal torture and execution, then has the rest of the Victoria crew murdered. Low commits more atrocities this year, but is not certainly heard of after the end of the yearThe Kangxi Era ends in Qing dynasty China, and the Yongzheng Era begins, with the coronation of Yinzhen, the Yongzheng EmperorKing Louis XV of France attains his majority on his 13th birthday, bringing an end to the regency of his cousin Philippe II, Duke of OrléansIn Switzerland, the attempt by Major Abraham Davel to make the canton of Vaud independent of the Swiss government, is put down, one day after he and 500 men had taken control of the Vaudois capital, Lausanne. Davel is arrested, tortured and tried for treason; he is beheaded on April 24The Black Act 1723, intended to combat illegal hunting in Great Britain, comes into force and expands the number of crimes that are punishable by death, and remains in effect for 100 yearsJohann Sebastian Bach assumed the office of Thomaskantor in Leipzig, presenting his first new cantata, Die Elenden sollen essen, BWV 75, in the St. Nicholas Church on the first Sunday after TrinityBaku surrenders to the RussiansBach's Magnificat is first performedChristian von Wolff holds a lecture for students and the magistrates at the end of his term as a rector,[4] as a result of which he is banned from Prussia, on a charge of atheismJohann Sebastian Bach leads the first performance of his cantata Erforsche mich, Gott, und erfahre mein Herz, BWV 136, in Leipzig on the eighth Sunday after TrinityPhilippe II, Duke of Orléans, who had served as the Regent of France to rule for King Louis XV from 1715 until the latter's attainment of majority on February 15, is appointed by the King to serve as his Prime Minister, but dies in office less than four months laterThe Ostend Company is chartered by merchants and shipowners to establish trade for the Austrian Netherlands in the East Indies and West Indies. Over the next two days, 54 major investors in Antwerp purchase the shares of stock in the companyThe Peterhof Palace is opened in a formal ceremony just outside Saint Petersburg, capital of the Russian EmpireSaint Petersburg State University is established in RussiaCatherine I of Russia is officially named tsaritsa by her husband, Peter the GreatThe premiere of Giulio Cesare, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel, takes place in LondonPope Innocent XIII dies at the age of 68 after less than three years as the Roman Catholic pontiffThe 1724 papal conclaveThe premiere performance, of the St John Passion (BWV 245) of Johann Sebastian Bach, takes place at St. Nicholas Church, LeipzigThe first of the seven "Drapier's Letters" satirical pamphlets, seeking to turn British public opinion against Ireland, is distributed by Jonathan Swift, who writes under the pseudonym "M. B., Drapier", identifying himself as a drapier or seller of clothCardinal Giulio Piazza, the Archbishop of Faenza, comes within four votes of being elected the new PopeCardinal Vincenzo Orsini, the Archbishop of Benevento, accepts the papacy, two days after being unanimously selected by the cardinals at the papal conclave in Rome. He becomes the 245th pontiff as Pope Benedict XIIIThe Treaty of Constantinople is signed, partitioning Persia between the Ottoman Empire and RussiaPeter the Wild Boy is captured near Helpensen in HanoverLouis I of Spain dies of smallpox, aged 17, after a reign of seven months, and his father Philip V resumes the throneJosé de Grimaldo, who had been Prime Minister for Spain's King Philip V until the latter's abdication in January, resumes office with the return of King PhilipThe Paris Bourse, the stock exchange for France, is created by order of King Louis XV on the advice of Nicolas Ravot d'Ombreval, four years after a financial panic had shut down trading. Stock markets had already been set up in Lyon, Bourdeaux and ToulouseThe historic Teatro Nuovo opera house is inaugurated in Naples with the premiere of Antonio Orefice's comic opera Lo SimmeleYeongjo becomes the new Emperor of Korea after the death of his older brother, Gyeongjong. He reigns for almost 52 years until his death on April 22, 1776George Frideric Handel's opera Tamerlano is performed for the first time, premiering in London. The opera has been revived as recently as 2009Joseph Blake (alias Blueskin), English highwayman, is hanged in LondonHighwayman Jack Sheppard is hanged in LondonWillem Mons, lover of Catherine I of Russia, is executed, and his head preserved in alcoholThe Dutch East India Company frigate Slot ter Hooge strikes rocks and sinks off Porto Santo Island, Madeira, with the loss of 221 of the 254 people on boardThe Metropolitan Mojsije Petrović, leader of the Serbian Orthodox Church within the Habsburg monarchy, issues a 57-point decree to purge the church of the Turkish influenceThe Tumult of Thorn (Toruń)The Viceroyalty of Zhili (now the Hebei province) is recreated in the Chinese Empire by the Emperor Yongzheng for the first time in 55 years, with Li Weijun as the first Viceory. Zhili exists as a viceroyalty until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912Francesco Valesio resumes writing his Diario di Roma, 13 years after he ceased his recording of daily life in RomeJames Macrae, a former captain of a freighter for the British East India Company, is hired by the Company to administer the Madras Presidency (at the time, the "Presidency of Fort St. George"), and begins major reforms. At the time, the area administered is most of Southern India, including what is now the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, parts the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Telangana, Odisha and the union territory of LakshadweepJames Figg hosts the first recorded international boxing match, fought between English livestock drover Bob Whitaker and Venetian gondolier Alberto di Carni in LondonThe Spanish corsair Amaro Pargo receives the title of Hidalgo (nobleman)Catherine I becomes Empress of Russia, on the death of her husband, Peter the GreatThe first reported case of white men scalping Native Americans takes place in New Hampshire colonyThe second performance of Johann Sebastian Bach's St John Passion, BWV 245 (including 5 movements from his Weimarer Passion), takes place at St. Thomas Church, LeipzigCharles VI, Holy Roman Emperor and King Philip V of Spain sign the Treaty of ViennaThe Black Watch is raised as a military company, as part of the pacification of the Scottish Highlands under General George WadeOn the day of the grand wedding of her daughter Anna to the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Empress Catherine I of Russia creates the Order of Saint Alexander NevskyJonathan Wild, fraudulent Thief-Taker General, is hanged at Tyburn in London, for actually aiding criminalsThe Malt tax riots begin in Scotland in Hamilton, South Lanarkshire, after the price of beer and scotch whiskey increases. Earlier in the year, the British government extended the taxes in England on malted grain to brewers and distilleries in Scotland. The rioting then spreads throughout Scot countiesThe Grand Lodge of Ireland in Dublin holds its first recorded meeting, making it the second most senior Grand Lodge in world Freemasonry, and the oldest in continuous existenceMattheus de Haan becomes the new Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), governing until his death on June 1, 1729 in Batavia (now Jakarta)Sir Richard Everard becomes the 4th Governor of North CarolinaThe civil marriage of King Louis XV of France and Princess Maria Leszczyńska of Poland is held at Strasbourg. The King is not present, and his cousin, the Duke of Orléans, serves as his proxyAt least 216 people die in the sinking of the Chameau, a ship of the French Navy, after the vessel is driven by a storm into rocks off of the coast of Nova Scotia. Reportedly, 180 bodies wash ashore near Louisbourg. The ship's cargo, which included a fortune in gold and silver coins, is discovered 240 years later in 1965The day after they meet for the first time, the wedding ceremony of King Louis and Marie takes place in Fontainebleau, making her the Queen Consort of France. Their marriage lasts for almost 43 years until her death in 1768The Treaty of Hanover is signed between Great Britain, France and PrussiaJohan Paul Schagen in appointed by the Dutch East India Company to serve as the Governor of Ceylon after the death of Johannes HertenbergRussia dispatches 1,500 troops and 120 civilians to Russia's border with China, on a mission to survey the boundaries in order to make a treaty with the Chinese Empire. Serbian adventurer Sava Vladislavich leads a group of cartographers to prepare maps in advance of traveling on to BeijingThe fourth and final treaty of the 1725 Peace of Vienna is signed to create an alliance between Austria and SpainThe first newspaper in the Province of New York, the New-York Gazette, is introduced by William Bradford as a weekly publicationChief Chicagou of the Mitchigamea tribe, and chiefs of five other tribes of the Illini Confederation, are received as guests of King Louis XV in Paris. Chicagou pledges the Illini's support of the French presence in North AmericaBritish astronomers James Bradley and Samuel Molyneux set up a telescope in Molyneux's private observatory to begin their observations of stellar parallax of the star Gamma Draconis. [7] The observations, which start on December 3, lead to Bradley's pioneering discovery of the aberration of lightJohan Willem Ripperda of the Netherlands, the former Dutch Ambassador to Spain, arrives in Madrid and claims that King Philip V has appointed him as the new Prime Minister. The bluff is successful and he is granted authority by the King's advisers, but after four months, he is forced to resignA treaty is signed by chiefs of four member tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy (the Abenaki, Pequawket, Mi'kmaq, Maliseet) and representatives of three British provinces in North America (Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire and Nova Scotia) and their allies, the Mohawk nation, bringing an end to Dummer's War, named for acting Massachusetts Bay Governor William DummerThe Conventicle Act (Konventikelplakatet) is adopted in Sweden, outlawing all non-Lutheran religious meetings outside of church servicesThe First Treaty of Vienna is signed between Austria, the Holy Roman Empire and Spain, creating the Austro-Spanish Alliance in advance of a war against Great BritainOn its maiden voyage, the Dutch East India Company frigate Aagtekerke departs from the Dutch Cape Colony on the second leg of its journey to the Dutch East Indies and is never seen again. Aagtekerke had carried with it a crew of 200 men and was lost somewhere in the Indian OceanThe Supreme Privy Council is established in RussiaThe Parliament of Negrete (between Mapuche and Spanish authorities in Chile) brings an end to the Mapuche uprising of 1723–26In London, a night watchman finds a severed head by the River Thames; it is later recognized to be that of the husband of Catherine Hayes. She and an accomplice are later executedChina's Emperor Yongzheng issues a special edict instructing his "Vice Minister of Punishments" Huang Bing to interrogate Qin Daoran, who provides the evidence that Yongzheng's brothers Yintang, Yin-ssu and Yin-ti, had conspired to overthrow the EmperorThe first large shipment of slaves arrives in New Orleans as the slave ship L'Aurore arrives with 290 black people captured in Gambia.[4] During the 90-day voyage from Gorée in Senegal, 60 of the slaves had diedAfter King Haffon of the West African Kingdom of Whydah (now in Benin) allows Portuguese traders to build Fort São João Batista in the capital at Savi, mercenaries of the Dutch West India Company make a failed attempt to destroy the fort by "throwing two flaming spears over the walls". By 1726, traders from Britain, France, the Netherlands and Portugal are all competing to establish trade with Whydah, which supplies other West Africans to be used as slavesFrance's first ambassador to Russia, Jacques de Campredon, leaves after four years of trying to negotiate a Franco-Russian alliance with Catherine I and a failed attempt to arrange a marriage between King Louis XV and Catherine's daughter ElizabethVoltaire begins his exile in EnglandLouis Henri, Duke of Bourbon, is dismissed from being the Prime Minister of France and Jean Pâris de Monmartel is removed from his position as Guard of the Royal Treasury by King Louis XV. The King selects his former tutor, André-Hercule de Fleury to replace the Duke of Bourbon as his Chief Minister. Fleury and the Duke of Bourbon had clashed with each other in their services as adviser to the King, and Fleury's departure from the court in protest and led to his recall and the firing of the DukeAndré-Hercule Cardinal de Fleury, recalled from exile by King Louis XV of France, banishes Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon, and Madame de Prie from courtPirate Nicholas Brown is captured near Xtabi, JamaicaCharles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, issues an order limiting the number of Jews who can be legally recognized as legitimate householdersPermission to celebrate the feast of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, celebrated on July 17, is extended by Pope Benedict XIII to the entire Roman Catholic ChurchJonathan Swift's satirical novel Gulliver's Travels is first published (anonymously) in London; it sells out within a weekCallinicus, Metropolitan of Heraclea dies suddenly only one day after being elected the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, the highest office in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Callinicus is said to have paid a record fee to the Ottoman Sultan to guarantee his appointmentThe settlement of Montevideo is founded by the Spaniards in the Viceroyalty of PeruThe world-famous Charité Hospital is established in Berlin, to be used for research and to help the poor. Prussia's King Frederick William I had ordered the conversion of a 16-year old institution, originally built in anticipation of an epidemic of the bubonic plagueJohann Sebastian Bach's solo cantata, Ich habe genug, BWV 82, premieres in LeipzigGerman composer George Frideric Handel becomes a British subjectSpain's ambassador to Great Britain demands that the British return Gibraltar after accusing Britain of violating the terms of the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. Britain refuses and the Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar begins on February 22The west African Kingdom of Dahomey, ruled by King Trudo Agaja, conquers and annexes the Kingdom of Xwéda, after King Haffon is killed in battle (three years earlier, Agaja conquered the neighboring state of Allada)After 55 years as Sultan of Morocco, Ismail Ibn Sharif dies at the age of 81, prompting a 30-year battle between seven of his sons, for succession to the throneJohann Sebastian Bach's St Matthew Passion (BWV 244b) premieres at St. Thomas Church, LeipzigThe Brotherly Agreement is adopted by the Moravian Church community at Herrnhut, under the influence of Count Nicolaus Zinzendorf, beginning the Church's renewalThe Royal Bank of Scotland is founded by Royal Charter in EdinburghGeorge, Prince of Wales, becomes King George II of Great Britain, on the death of his fatherSpain ceases hostilities after its attempt to recapture Gibraltar from Britain fails. A truce is signed the next dayUxbridge, Massachusetts, is incorporated as a townSeventeen Ursuline Sisters from France land in New Orleans, in the Louisiana territory of New France, after a journey that began on February 22.[3] They later create the orphanage which is the predecessor of Catholic Charities and the Ursuline Academy, the oldest Catholic school in the United StatesThe Moravian Church community at Herrnhut undergoes a Pentecostalist experienceAnne, eldest daughter of King George II of Great Britain, is given the title Princess RoyalA barn fire during a puppet show in the village of Burwell, Cambridgeshire, England, kills 78 people, many of them children. Another report says that all but six of the 160 persons assembled were killed in the accidental fireGeorge II of Great Britain is crowned. Handel's Coronation Anthems are composed for the event, including Zadok the Priest, which has been played at every subsequent Coronation of the British monarchWith voting for the British House of Commons concluding, the Whigs, led by Sir Robert Walpole, increase their supermajority, winning 415 of the 558 seats. The Tories share of Commons decreases from 169 to 128The Netherlands signs the Treaty of SevilleThe foundation stone of the Jerusalem's Church in Berlin is laidFor the first time since the union of England and Scotland into Great Britain, the Royal Bank of Scotland, which still retains the right to print currency, issues its first pound note, printing paper currency for twenty shillings. The Scottish pound note continues to be printed until 2001 and the smallest denomination now is a five pound noteThe London Evening Post, a conservative newspaper, publishes its first issue. It continues in regular publication for 70 yearsThe Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Gerónimo de la Habana, the oldest university in Cuba, is founded in HavanaThe coronation of Peter II as the Tsar of the Russian Empire takes place in MoscowThe Beggar's Opera, the most popular theatrical production of the 18th century, is performed for the first time. The premiere takes place at the Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre in London. Written by John Gay with music arranged by Johann Christoph Pepusch, the ballad opera is a satire of Italian operaJean-Jacques Rousseau leaves Geneva for the first timeFrench bishop André-Hercule de Fleury, later Prime Minister for King Louis XV of France, is made a Roman Catholic Cardinal by Pope Benedict XIIIThe Nanfan Treaty of July 19, 1701 between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Province of New York, is amended by both partiesSaint Serapion of Algiers, the first Mercedarian (of the Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mercy) is canonized by Pope Benedict XIIIJohn Essington, a member of the British House of Commons, is expelled from Commons after a successful petition to have him unseated. Essington, deep in debt, dies in Newgate Prison less than year laterThe 82 survivors of the wreckage of the Dutch East India Company frigate Zeewijk arrive in the new ship that they had built, Sloepie, at their original destination of Batavia in the Dutch East Indies (now Jakarta in Indonesia)Saint Margaret of Cortona, the patron saint of the falsely accused, homeless people and mental illness sufferers, is canonizedPope Gregory VII (Hildebrand of Sovana), who served as pontiff from 1073 to 1085, is canonized as a Roman Catholic saintThe Royal Bank of Scotland invents the overdraft, allowing Edinburgh merchant William Hogg cash credit (in the amount of £1,000) for his creditors to be paid by the bank until Hogg receives expected revenue to repay the amount owed, plus interestThe Congress of Soissons opens at the French town of Soissons to negotiate a treaty between Great Britain and Spain. [2] The treaty, which is concluded on November 9, 1729, recognizes the Spanish royal family's rule of parts of Italy, and Britain's possession of Gibraltar and MenorcaThe Treaty of Kyakhta is signed at the border city of Kyakhta, between Russia and China, by representatives of the Tsar Peter II, and the Emperor YongzhengThe First Kamchatka Expedition, led by Vitus Bering and his crew sail northward on the ship Archangel Gabriel from the Kamchatka Peninsula, through the Bering Strait, and round Cape DezhnevAt the age of 8, Prince Teruhito, son of Emperor Nakamikado, is named as the Crown Prince of Japan. Teruhito becomes the Emperor Sakuramachi at age 15, upon his father's deathAfter a reign of only four months, Abdalmalik is deposed as Sultan of Morocco by his half-brother Ahmad ad Dahabi, whom he had deposed on March 13. Abdalmalik is later captured and executed on March 2, 1729At the conclusion of the Szeged witch trials in the city of the same name in Hungary, six men and six women are burned at the stake on the island of Boszorkány Sziget (Hungarian for "Witch Island")Because of advancing Arctic ice, the First Kamchatka Expedition turns around after Vitus Bering concludes (inaccurately) that it had reached the easternmost point of Russia and Asia, and fails to spot the coast of Alaska because of the weatherThe City of Nuuk is founded in Greenland, as Fort Godt-Haab, by royal governor Claus PaarssJohn Deane, a colonial administrator of Britain's British East India Company, returns to Calcutta (Kolkata) after an absence of more than two years, and takes office at Fort William to return to administering the Bengal Presidency, an area now covering the Indian state of West Bengal and the nation of BangladeshWilliam Burnet, the British Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay since July 19, is appointed by King George II to be the Governor of the Province of New Hampshire as well, governing both future U.S. states simultaneously until September 7. Up until July, Burnet had been Governor of both New York and New Jersey since 1720Frederick, the eldest son of King George II of Great Britain is made Prince of Wales at the age of 21, a few months after he comes to Britain for the first time after growing up in Hanover. For 23 years, Frederick is heir apparent to the British throne, but dies of a lung injury in 1751At the age of 14, Joseph (José), Prince of Brazil, son of King John V of Portugal, is married to the 10-year-old Princess Mariana Victoria of Spain, eldest daughter of King Philip V of Spain. In 1750, the couple become King Joseph I and Queen Consort Mariana Victoria of SpainKing Philip V of Spain issues a royal cedula, directing an effort to offer incentives to families from the Canary Islands for settlements in New Spain north of the Rio Grande in the modern-day U.S. state of Texas[1] (→ Canarian Americans)In the city of Resht in Persia, Russian and Afghani leaders sign a peace treaty, with General Vasily Levashev for Russia and Muhammad Saidal Khan for AfghanistanJames Oglethorpe, a member of the British House of Commons, begins service as the Chairman of the Gaols Committee to investigate the conditions of Britain's jails and prisons after the death in Fleet Prison of his friend, Robert Castell. The Oglethorpe Committee's report propels Oglethorpe to fame and leads to the beginning of British penal reformsAbdallah of Morocco becomes the new Sultan of Morocco upon the death of his half-brother, Abu'l Abbas Ahmad. Sultan Abdallah reigns for five years before being deposed for the first time, then returns to the throne five more times between 1736 and 1757John of Nepomuk (Jan Nepomucký) of Bohemia is canonized by Pope Benedict XIII more than 300 years after being tortured and drowned in 1393 by order of King Wenceslaus IV; John becomes patron saint of Roman Catholics in the Czech RepublicJohann Sebastian Bach's First Köthen Funeral music premieres at St. Jakob, Köthen, in honor of the funeral of his former employer Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen. The next morning, Bach's funeral cantata Klagt, Kinder, klagt es aller Welt, BWV 244a premieres at St. Jakob, marking the same occasionBenjamin Franklin, aged 23, writes the essay "A Modest Enquiry Into the Nature and Necessity of Paper Currency" and later applies the economic principles to backing of paper money used in the United StatesJohann Sebastian Bach's St Matthew Passion, BWV 244b is performed again, at St. Thomas Church, LeipzigFor the first time in its history, the British House of Commons is adjourned for lack of a quorum. On January 5, 1640, it had first fixed the number of members necessary — 40 — for parliamentary business to be transactedA fire breaks out inside the fully walled town of Haiger within the Holy Roman Empire (in the modern-day state of Hesse in Germany) and destroys all the buildingsSix English pirates, including Mary Critchett, seize control of the sloop John and Elizabeth while being transported to America to complete their criminal sentences. They overpower their captors but are later captured in Chesapeake Bay by HMS Shoreham and hanged in AugustCaroline, Queen Consort becomes the first person to rule Great Britain as regent under the Regency Acts, beginning service as the acting monarch when her husband King George II departs Britain for Germany, where he is the Elector of Hanover. Caroline rules until George's return in OctoberDiederik Durven becomes the new Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia) upon the death of Mattheus de HaanThe Botanic Gardens of Pamplemousses, one of the most popular tourist attractions on the island republic of Mauritius, are started by Pierre Barmond, who sets aside thousands of acres for the purpose of preservation of the islands flora. The gardens come to occupy 97 square miles or 251 square kilometersSeven of the original eight Lords Proprietor of the Province of Carolina sell their shares back to the British crown. The 1710 division of the Province is made permanent and the area is reorganized into the Royal Colonies of North Carolina and South CarolinaBaltimore, Maryland is foundedThe Comet of 1729, possibly the largest comet based on the absolute magnitude, on record, is discovered by Fr. Nicolas Sarrabat, a professor of mathematics at MarseilleThe Treaty of Seville is signed between Great Britain, France, Spain and the Dutch RepublicThe Natchez revoltThe first (wooden) Putney Bridge is completed, as the only fixed crossing of the River Thames between London Bridge and Kingston, EnglandGeorge Frideric Handel's famous opera Lotario is given its first performance, premiering at the King's Theatre in LondonUnder the pretense of a peace offering, the Yazoo and Koroa warriors enter the French settlement at Fort St. Pierre (near modern-day Vicksburg, Mississippi) and kill most of the inhabitantsAt dawn, Emperor Peter II of Russia dies of smallpox, aged 14 in Moscow, on the eve of his projected marriageAnna of Russia (Anna Ioannovna) becomes reigning Empress of Russia following the death of her cousin Emperor Peter IIVitus Bering returns to the Russian capital of Saint Petersburg after completing the First Kamchatka expeditionThe 1730 papal conclave to elect a new Pope for the Roman Catholic church begins with 30 Cardinals, 12 days after the death of Pope Benedict XIII. By the time his successor is elected on July 12, there are 56 CardinalsJohn Glas is deposed from the Church of Scotland; the Glasite sect forms around himThe establishment by Thomas Cresap of Wright's Ferry under the authority of the Province of Pennsylvania[ becomes the basis for Cresap's War, a nine-year-long conflict also known as the Maryland-Pennsylvania boundary dispute; the conflict mainly centers in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania and York County, Pennsylvania on either bank of the Susquehanna RiverCongregation Shearith Israel, the first synagogue in New York City, is dedicatedThe coronation of Anna of Russia as Empress of Russia takes place in Saint PetersburgCharles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, retires from his role in the government of Great Britain, leaving Robert Walpole as sole and undisputed leader of the Cabinet (i.e., prime minister). In the new Walpole ministry, Sir William Strickland, 4th Baronet, becomes Secretary at War, and Henry Pelham is Paymaster of the Forces; Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington briefly becomes Lord Privy SealEnslaved woman Sally Basset is put on trial for murder in Bermuda; she will eventually be convicted and burned at the stakeAt the urging of Sir William Gooch, the Virginia House of Burgesses passes the Virginia Tobacco Inspection Act to regulate the quality of tobacco in Virginia, 46 to 5French explorer Alphonse de Pontevez, commanding the frigate Le Lys, claims an Indian Ocean atoll for France and names it after himself as the Alphonse Atoll. The next day, he claims and names the St. François AtollThe papal conclave selects Cardinal Lorenzo Corsini over Cardinal Pietro Marcellino Corradini as the successor to Pope Benedict XIII. Corsini becomes Pope Clement XII as the 246th popeMaria Madlener becomes the last person to be executed after the Galgeninsel witch trials in Bavaria, and is beheaded by swordPrince Frederick of Prussia, the eldest son of King Frederick William and a high-ranking officer, attempts to flee to England after deserting the Prussian Army and is captured along with his fellow officer Hans Hermann von Katte. Katte is executed, and Crown Prince Frederick is imprisoned at Küstrin (modern-day Kostrzyn nad Odrą in Poland) for a year before being forgiven by his father. Prince Frederick later succeeds his father as King and will be remembered as Frederick the GreatFrench Protestant Marie Durand is imprisoned in the Tower of Constance at Aigues-Mortes for her defiance of the Roman Catholic government, and is kept captive for the next 38 years. During her incarceration, she continues to resist converting to Catholicism as a condition of release. She is finally set free on April 14, 1768 and lives 8 more yearsConstruction of the Ladoga Canal, linking the Neva and Svir Rivers, one of the first major navigable canals constructed in Russia, is completedAfter being convicted of treason for attempting to desert the Prussian Army with Crown Prince Frederick, Hans Hermann von Katte is beheaded at the Küstrin Prison. Frederick's father, King Frederick William, forces the prince to watch the executionThe first documented notice in North America about freemasonry is published in The Pennsylvania Gazette in an article by its publisher, Benjamin FranklinThe Dutch East India Company ends an almost 11-year effort of trying to maintain a colony around Delagoa Bay in southern Africa in modern-day Mozambique. The entire population of the settlement, Fort Lydzammheid (near modern-day Maputo) is evacuated by the ships Snuffelaar, Zeepost and Feyenoord and the group returns to Cape TownA fire in Brussels at the Coudenberg Palace, at this time the home of the ruling Austrian Duchess of Brabant, destroys the building, including the state records stored thereinIn China, the Emperor Yongzheng orders grain to be shipped from Hubei and Guangdong to the famine-stricken Shangzhou region of Shaanxi provinceLouise Hippolyte becomes only the second woman to serve as Princess of Monaco, the reigning monarch of the tiny European principality, ascending upon the death of her father Prince Antonio. She reigns only nine months before dying of smallpox on December 29The Treaty of Vienna is signed between the Holy Roman Empire, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic and SpainThe town of Raynham, Massachusetts in Bristol County is entered as a new town by the governor and court of Massachusetts, New England, AmericaBritish trader Robert Jenkins has his ear cut off after his ship, Rebecca is boarded by Spanish coast guards at Havana in Cuba.[3] The incident becomes the casus belli for the War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739A fire at White's Chocolate House, near St. James's Palace in London, destroys the historic club and the paintings therein, but is kept from spreading by the fast response of firemenThe Pacific Fleet of the Russian Navy is established by order of the Empress Anna of Russia, who directs Grigory Skornyakov-Pisarev to assume command over the new fleet and to develop Okhotsk as a major portThe English market town of Blandford Forum is destroyed by fire, with the exception of 26 houses. About one-third of the uninsured losses are paid for by the collection of disaster relief moneyBenjamin Franklin and fellow-subscribers start the Library Company of PhiladelphiaKing Frederick William I of Prussia forgives his 19-year-old son, Prince Frederick, who has been confined since November to the town of Küstrin (now Kostrzyn nad Odrą in Poland) for his 1730 attempt to desert from the Prussian Army.[8] Nine years later, having been politically rehabilitated, Prince Frederick succeeds his father as King and is later remembered as "Frederick the Great"The oldest known sports score in history is recorded in the description of a cricket match at Richmond Green in England, when the team of Thomas Chambers of Middlesex defeats the Duke of Richmond's team by 119 to 79The village of Barnwell, Cambridgeshire, England, is "burned down entirely" by a fireA fire at Ashburnham House in Westminster destroys 114 irreplaceable manuscripts (including a manuscript of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) and damages 98 others (among them the manuscript of Beowulf). Richard Bentley, the King's librarian and the House's owner, saves the only copy of the Codex Alexandrinus, carrying it under one arm as he leaps from a window. Bentley's ten year labor in translating the Greek Testament is ruined by the blaze. The remaining 844 manuscripts later form the heart of the collections Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler announces his use of the irrational number e (approximately 2.71828) as the base for the concept of the natural logarithm, describing it in a letter to German mathematician Christian GoldbachJacques Grimaldi, the husband of the reigning monarch of Monaco, Louise Hippolyte, succeeds to the throne after Louise's death from smallpox. Jacques I rules until his own death in 1751Russia and Persia sign the Treaty of Riascha at Resht.[1] Based on the terms of the agreement, Russia will no longer establish claims over Persian territoriesThe Swedish East India Company begins its profitable first expedition to China, departing Gothenburg on the ship Friedericus Rex Sueciae under the command of Colin CampbellHenry Fielding's comedy The Modern Husband premieres at the Royal Theatre on Drury Lane in LondonJohn Stackhouse is appointed by the British East India Company as the new President of the Bengal Presidency and serves for seven yearsRussia approves the second Kamchatka expedition of Danish-born cartographer Vitus Bering, and the Admiralty orders him to sail east and try to claim uncharted lands in North America139 members of the Parliament of Paris, exiled by order of King Louis XV, secure their recallThe original Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London (the modern-day Royal Opera House) is openedBenjamin Franklin, in the Pennsylvania Gazette, first advertises the publication of Poor Richard's Almanack, purportedly written by "Richard Saunders", a pen name used by Franklin. [10] The book goes on sale on December 28. [11] The annual publication will continue until 1758Borommarachathirat V becomes King of Siam (now Thailand) upon the death of King Sanphet IXGeorge Frideric Handel's classic opera, Orlando is performed for the first time, making its debut at the King's Theatre in LondonBritish colonist James Oglethorpe founds Savannah, GeorgiaThe Molasses Act is passed by British House of Commons, which reinforces the negative opinions of the British by American colonists.[2] The Act then goes to the House of Lords, which consents to it on May 4 and it receives royal assent on May 17English replaces Latin and Law French as the official language of English and Scottish courts following the enforcement of the Proceedings in Courts of Justice Act 1730After British Prime Minister Robert Walpole's proposed excise tax bill results in rioting over the imposition of additional taxes and the use of government agents to collect them, Walpole informs the House of Commons that he will withdraw the legislationRoyal Colony of North Carolina Commissioners John Watson, Joshua Grainger, Michael Higgins and James Wimble begin selling lots for the town of New Carthage (which is later renamed and is now Wilmington, North Carolina), on the east side of the Cape Fear RiverThe canton system is first introduced in PrussiaThe Molasses Act receives royal assent and begins to go into effect on June 24The introduction of John Kay's Flying Shuttle which revolutionized the textile industry and marked the beginning of the Industrial RevolutionThe right of Canadians to keep Indian slaves is upheld at QuebecAt Schloss Salzdahlum, Prince Frederick of Prussia, the 21-year-old heir to the throne reluctantly marries Duchess Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern in order to avoid prosecution for desertion from the Prussian Army and to be guaranteed the throne. Despite the unhappy marriage Frederick and Elisabeth later reign as King and Queen Consort of PrussiaThe Danish West India Company buys the island of Saint Croix from France for 750,000 livresThe first Freemasons lodge, the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts, opens in what will become the United States of AmericaIn Warsaw as Stanislas Leszczynski appears to be on the verge of being elected King of Poland, Russia, Austria and Saxony sign Löwenwolde's Treaty (named for Russian diplomat Karl Gustav von Löwenwolde), pledging to go to war to place Frederick Augustus, son of the late King Augustus II, on the throneStanislas Leszczynski, who had been King of Poland from 1704 to 1709 until being driven from the throne by King Augustus II, is returned to office by the vote of the Sejm.[7] Russia and Austria protest the election, since King Stanislaus is backed by France and SwedenThe Treaty of Turin is signed in Turin as a secret agreement between King Louis XV of France and King Charles Emmanuel III of SardiniaEnglish Captain Charles Gough rediscovers Gough Island in the South AtlanticMPs John Birch and Denis Bond are expelled from the House of Commons of Great Britain after using their positions on the Commission for Forfeited Lands to make fraudulent salesKing Christian VI of Denmark signs the charter for the new Danish Asia Company (Dansk Asiatisk Kompagni), granting it a 40-year monopoly on Denmark's trade in Asia, leading to the creation of Danish India and cities of Trankebar (now Tharangambadi in Tamil Nadu), Frederiknagore (now Serampore in West Bengal) and the Frederiksøerne Islands (now the Nicobar Islands)Representatives of the heirs of William Penn and of Lord Baltimore, the respective owners of most of the land in the Province of Pennsylvania and the Maryland Colony set out the boundary between the two future U.S. states after a survey determines that Philadelphia is located on the Maryland side of the border. The dispute eventually leads to a lawsuit and the eventual survey by Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon to determine the Mason–Dixon lineRebels in Corsica agree to allow the Republic of Genoa to resume its administration of the island in return for amnesty and promised reformsDirck van Cloon becomes the new Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia)James Oglethorpe is granted a royal charter for the colony of GeorgiaThe Order of Malta under the command of Jacques-François de Chambray defeats a convoy of the Ottoman Empire and frees 14 Christian slaves, following the naval battle of DamiettaMikhail Gvozdev in the Sviatoi Gavriil makes the first known crossing of the Bering Strait, from Cape Dezhnev to Cape Prince of Wales in Alaska, marking the first time that Europeans have reached the northwest coast of North AmericaThe Treaty of the Three Black Eagles or the Treaty of Berlin, a secret treaty between the Austrian Empire, the Russian Empire and Prussia against the Polish–Lithuanian CommonwealthFrench Army Lieutenant General Florent-Jean de Vallière is tasked by King Louis XV to improve France's method of forging cannonsFrance declares war on Austria and SaxonyThe Molasses Act goes into full effectSalzburgers, Lutherans who were expelled by the Roman Catholic Bishop of Salzburg, Austria, in October 1731, set sail for the British Colony of Georgia in AmericaThe Ostend Company, established in 1722 in the Austrian Netherlands (modern-day Belgium) to compete for trade in the West Indies (the Caribbean islands) and the East Indies (south and southeast Asia), ceases business as part of the agreement by Austria in the Second Treaty of ViennaSalzburgers arrive at the mouth of the Savannah River in the British Colony of GeorgiaPrince Charles of Spain (later King Charles III) becomes the new King of Naples and Sicily, five days after his arrival in NaplesBattle of BitontoFrench and Swiss troops suppress the slave insurrection in the Danish West Indies on the island of Saint John (part of the modern-day U.S. Virgin Islands) after six months and restore control of the plantations to the Danish ownersWith the conclusion of the British general election (voting having begun in some constituencies on April 22), the Whigs, led by Prime Minister Robert Walpole, lose 85 seats but retain their majorityFrench troops take Philippsburg, but the Duke of Berwick is killedIn Montreal, New France, a black slave known by the French name of Marie-Joseph Angélique is tortured then hanged by the French authorities for allegedly setting a fire that destroyed part of the cityJamaica's Governor John Ayscough declares martial law to fight the slave rebellion that began in 1733, then drafts 600 men into the colonial army to march into the Blue MountainsChief Tomochichi of the Yamacraw band of the Muscogee Nation ends a successful four and a half month visit to Great Britain, along with Georgia Governor James Oglethorpe and other Yamacraw Indians, after having signed the cession of the area of modern day Savannah, Georgia to the Georgia Company. On June 16, he and the Muscogee delegation (Senauki, Toonahowi, Hillispilli, Umpichi, Apokutchi, Santachi and Stimaletchi) had been welcomed as guests of King George II. The group departs on HMS Aldborough after coThe Dzików Confederation is created in PolandA fire destroys the Royal Alcázar of Madrid, the residence of the Spanish royal family, along with more than 400 valuable paintings, 100 sculptures and thousands of documentsAlexander Pope's poem Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot is published in LondonGeorge Frideric Handel's opera Ariodante is premièred at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, LondonAll 256 people on board the Dutch East India Company ships Vliegenthart and Anna Catherina die when the two ships sink in a gale off of the Netherlands coast. The wreckage of Vliegenthart remains undiscovered until 1981The Order of St. Anna is established in Russia, in honor of the daughter of Peter the GreatThe Russian Empire and Persia sign the Treaty of Ganja, with Russia ceding territories in the Caucasus mountains to Persia, and the two rivals forming a defensive alliance against the Ottoman EmpireAbraham Patras becomes the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) upon the death of Dirck van CloonEmperor Sakuramachi accedes to the throne of JapanAlcina, George Frideric Handel's Italian opera, premieres at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, LondonGeorge Hadley publishes the first explanation of the trade windsLê Thuần Tông, Emperor of Đại Việt since 1732, dies at the age of 36 and is succeeded by Lê Ý TôngIn Great Britain, the Engraving Copyright Act 1734, the first of a series of copyright protection laws, takes effect after being given royal assent by King George IIThe New York Weekly Journal writer John Peter Zenger is acquitted of seditious libel against the royal governor of New York, on the basis that what he published was trueThe Kingdom of France approves the issue of "card money" in the total amount of 200,000 livres to serve as currency in its Louisiana territory in AmericaSir Robert Walpole, the Prime Minister of Great Britain, becomes the first British premier to move into London's 10 Downing StreetAn agreement between the European powers brings a ceasefire in the War of the Polish Succession, one week short of the second anniversary of the war. With France and Spain on the side of the reigning monarch, Stanisław Leszczyński, and Prussia, Russia, and Austria supporting Augustus III, a preliminary peace is signed that was ratified in 1738 as the Treaty of Vienna. By the terms of the treaty, Stanisław Leszczyński renounced his claim on the Polish throne and recognized Augustus III, Duke of Saxony. As cJohn Wesley and his brother Charles set sail from England for Savannah in the Province of Georgia in British America; on the voyage they first encounter members of the Moravian ChurchIn China, Qianlong succeeds his father, Yongzheng, as Emperor and begins a 60-year-long reign within the Qing dynastyThe largest bell in the world, the 22 foot (6.7 m) diameter Tsar Kolokol, is successfully cast in Moscow within the KremlinThe Netherlands becomes the first government to announce a prohibition against citizens joining the FreemasonsThe second successful appendectomy is performed by naturalised British surgeon Claudius Aymand at St George's Hospital in London (the first was in 1731)At the age of 8 years old, Prince Luis of Spain becomes the youngest Roman Catholic Cardinal in history, after being named by Pope Clement XIIGeorge Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney, becomes the first Field Marshal of Great BritainThe Civil Code of 1734 is passed in SwedenStanislaus I of Poland abdicates his throneFrancis I, Holy Roman Emperor marries Maria Theresa of Austria, ruler of the Habsburg EmpireBellevue Hospital is founded in New YorkGerman adventurer Theodor Stephan Freiherr von Neuhoff is crowned King Theodore of Corsica, 25 days after his arrival on Corsica on March 20.[2] His reign ends on November 5 when he flees the islandA fire in Stony Stratford, England, consumes 53 housesFrederick, Prince of Wales, marries Princess Augusta of Saxe-GothaKing George II of Great Britain departs for Europe as part of his duties as Elector of Hanover; his wife, Caroline, Queen Consort rules on his behalf as the Regent for the last time until his return on January 14, 1736Battle of AckiaLeonhard Euler writes to James Stirling describing the Euler–Maclaurin formula, providing a connection between integrals and sumsA French Academy of Sciences expedition, led by Pierre Louis Maupertuis, with Anders Celsius, begins work on measuring a meridian arc in Meänmaa, FinlandWitchcraft Act of 1735 in Great Britain comes into effect, criminalizing claimants accusing people of practising witchcraft or of possessing magical powers, intended to end legal witch trials in the early modern period in the countryRussian forces under Peter Lacy storm the Ottoman fortress of AzovA fire in Saint Petersburg, capital of the Russian Empire, destroys 2,000 buildings, the city's post office, and several palacesAn Edinburgh crowd drags John Porteous out of his cell in Tolbooth Prison, and lynches himThe Gin Act 1736 goes into effect, placing a steep tax on the sale of gin and license requirements for its sale, with the intent of reducing consumption of the liquor in Britain. Widely ignored, the Act is repealed in 1743French scientist Charles Marie de La Condamine and a team of surveyors begin the first measurements at the Equator to determine the exact meridian arc measurement of distance between points separated by one degree of longitude in order to make a precise calculation of the Earth's circumference. [10] The initial measurements of this French Geodesic Mission to the Equator, made in what is now Ecuador, last until November 3. The same year the French Geodesic Mission to Lapland took place. Both confirm Isaac NeKing Theodore of Corsica flees the island after a reign of seven months and the kingdom reverts to French controlWord of the discovery of silver, south of what is now the U.S.-Mexican border, reaches Sonora Governor Juan Bautista Anza and soon leads to prospectors coming to Nogales to find more silver. [11] Late in October, a Yaqui Indian prospector, Antonio Siraumea, had discovered large slabs of silver ("Las planchas de plata"), and at the Estancia Arizona, a ranch owned by Captain Bernardo de Urrea. The region, and later the U.S. territory, and state of Arizona are named for Urrea's ranchBenjamin Franklin builds the first volunteer fire company in PhiladelphiaAndrew Michael Ramsay gives an oration, in which he relates the heritage and internationalism of Freemasonry to that of the CrusadesSpain and the Holy Roman Empire sign instruments of cession at Pontremoli in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in Italy, with the Empire receiving control of Tuscany and the Grand Duchy of Parma and Piacenza, in return for Don Carlos of Spain being recognized as King of Naples and King of SicilyThe Empires of Austria and Russia enter into a secret military alliance that leads to Austria's disastrous entry into the Russo-Turkish WarIn Manila, a peace treaty is signed between Spain's Governor-General of the Philippines, Fernándo Valdés y Tamon, and the Sultan Azim ud-Din I of Sulu, recognizing Azim's authority over the islands of the Sulu ArchipelagoFrance's Foreign Minister, Germain Louis Chauvelin, is dismissed by King Louis XV's Chief Minister, Cardinal André-Hercule de FleuryFrench scientists Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau and Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon publish the first study correlating past weather conditions with an examination of tree ringsIn Paris, representatives of Spain and Portugal sign an armistice bringing an end to the Spanish–Portuguese War over the area now occupied by the nation of Uruguay and the area now occupied by the state of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil. The news does not reach the fighting parties until five months laterFrench Jesuit priest Jean-François Régis is canonized as Saint Regis by the Roman Catholic Church under the reign of Pope Clement XIILots are first advertised for sale in the new town of Richmond, Virginia, by the placement of a notice by William Byrd in the Virginia Gazette. According to the paper, "... on the North Side of James River, near the Uppermost Landing, and a little below the Falls, is lately laid off by Major Mayo, a Town, called Richmond, with Streets 65 Feet wide, in a pleasant and healthy Situation, and well supply'd with Springs of good Water. It lies near the Publick Warehouse at Shoccoe's, and in the midst of great QuaThe planet Venus passes in front of Mercury. The event is witnessed during the evening hours, by the amateur astronomer John Bevis, at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. As of 2006, it is still the only such planet/planet occultation that has been directly observedIn Britain, the Theatrical Licensing Act requires plays to be submitted to the Lord Chamberlain for censorshipRussian forces under Field Marshal Munnich storm the Ottoman fortress of Ochakov, and take prisoner 4,000 TurksAustria enters the Russo-Turkish War as an ally of Russia against the Ottoman EmpireThe British ship Catherine founders in a storm off of Nova Scotia's Cape Sable Island during its voyage from Ireland to Boston, killing 98 of the 201 people on boardThe Battle of Banja LukaThe Portuguese frigate Nossa Senhora da Boa Viagem arrives at Maldonado (now in Uruguay) as Captain Duarte Pereira brings the news that the Spanish–Portuguese War ended by an agreement signed on March 16The oldest existing English language newspaper in the world, The News Letter, is founded in Belfast, IrelandRunner Edward Marshall completes his journey in the Walking Purchase, forcing the cession of 1,200,000 acres (4,900 km2) of Lenape-Delaware tribal land to the Pennsylvania ColonyThe first national stage in Sweden opens, when Carl Gyllenborg's play Den svenska sprätthöken is performed in the Swedish language, by the first native actors, on the stage of Bollhuset in StockholmThe Teatro di San Carlo, the oldest working opera house in Europe, is inaugurated in Naples, ItalyAt least 664 African slaves drown, when the Dutch West Indies Company slave ship Leusden capsizes and sinks in the Maroni River, during its arrival in Surinam. The Dutch crew escapes, and leaves the slaves locked below decks to dieGeorge Frideric Handel's opera Faramondo is given its first performanceCourt Jew Joseph Süß Oppenheimer is executed in WürttembergJacques de Vaucanson stages the first demonstration of an early automaton, The Flute Player at the Hotel de Longueville in Paris, and continues to display it until March 30Swedish Levant Company foundedMariner Robert Jenkins presents a pickled ear, which he claims was cut off by a Spanish captain in the Caribbean in 1731, to the Parliament of Great Britain, which votes, 257 to 209, for war against Spain, leading to the War of Jenkins' Ear the following yearSerse, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel, premieres in LondonSpain's Royal Academy of History (Real Academia de la Historia) is established by decree of King Philip V of SpainPope Clement XII issues the papal bull In eminenti apostolatus, prohibiting Roman Catholics from being members of Masonic societiesJohn Wesley, newly returned from America, experiences a spiritual rebirth at a Moravian Church meeting in Aldersgate, in the City of London, essentially launching the Methodist movement; the day is celebrated annually by Methodists as Aldersgate Day (his younger brother Charles had a similar experience three days earlier)The military phase of Cresap's War between the British North American Provinces of Maryland and Pennsylvania is ended when King George II of Great Britain negotiates a cease-fireBritish inventor Lewis Paul receives a patent for roller cotton-spinning machineryThe Spanish Empire's Council of the Indies votes, 6 to 4, to re-establish the Viceroyalty of New Granada, incorporating modern-day Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Panama.[9] King Philip V issues the order on August 20, 1738English metallurgist William Champion is granted a patent for his process of extracting zinc from other materials in a furnaceThomas Pellow of Cornwall finally escapes captivity, 23 years after having been captured by Barbary pirates and held as a slave in Morocco. He arrives in British territory when the ship he is on sails into Gibraltar Bay on July 21, and later recounts his story in the book The Adventures of Thomas Pellow, of Penryn, Mariner: Three and Twenty Years in Captivity Among the MoorsThe Russian army begins its attempt to cross the Dniester River and fails after three weeks; they are later decimated by plagueSamuel Johnson composes his first solemn prayer (published 1785)The excavation of Herculaneum, a Roman city buried by Vesuvius in AD 79, begins near the Italian city of Resina on orders from King Charles III of Spain to his engineer, Rocque Joaquin de AlcubierreThe Treaty of Vienna is ratified, ending the War of the Polish Succession. Under the terms of the treaty, Stanisław Leszczyński receives Lorraine in exchange for renouncing the Polish throneAfter setting off from Rotterdam in August with 240 immigrants to America, the British ship Princess Augusta is wrecked near Block Island off of the coast of the colony of Rhode Island.[14] During the voyage, 200 passengers and seven crew died from illness spread by contaminated water. Another 20 die after the crew leaves and rows to shore. The wreck later becomes the subject of the legend of the "Palatine Light" ghost ship and of John Greenleaf Whittier's 1867 poem "The Palatine"Bouvet Island is discovered by French explorer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier, in the South Atlantic OceanEnglish highwayman Dick Turpin is executed by hanging for horse theftJohn Wesley lays the foundation stone of the New Room, Bristol in England, the world's first Methodist meeting houseThe Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences is founded in Stockholm, SwedenThe first group purporting to represent an all-England cricket team, consisting of 11 players from various parts of England, comes to Kent and loses to the renowned Kent team, led by Lord John SackvilleThe British East India Company signs a treaty with the Maratha Empire to gain the right of free trade within the territoryThe Viceroyalty of New Granada, incorporating modern-day Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela is re-established by the royal cedula of King Philip V of Spain, 16 years after it had been dissolved, and adds the territory of Panama as wellThe Stono RebellionThe Treaty of Belgrade brings the Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–39) to an endThe Treaty of Niš is signedThe Foundling Hospital is created in London by royal charterGreat Britain declares war on SpainBattle of Porto BelloMonths of unseasonably cold weather begin in Ireland, precipitating the Irish Famine of 1740, known as Bliain an Áir ("The Year of Slaughter"). A January 5 dispatch from Dublin to the Stamford Mercury says "Since last Wednesday we have had the most violent cold Weather that was ever known in this Kingdom; hard Frost began that evening, which has continued ever since with a very stormy Wind at South-East."[7] At least 13% of Ireland's population dies of starvation in the year that followsAll 237 crewmen on the Dutch East India Company ship Rooswijk are drowned when the vessel strikes the shoals of Goodwin Sands, off of the coast of England, as it is beginning its second voyage to the Indies. The wreckage is discovered more than 250 years later, in 2004The North Carolina General Assembly incorporates the town of Newton as Wilmington, North Carolina, named for Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington and patron of Royal Governor Gabriel JohnstonKing Edward of the Miskito Indians signs a treaty making his kingdom, located on the coast of modern-day Nicaragua, a protectorate of Great BritainConstruction begins on Bethesda Orphanage for boys near Savannah, Georgia, founded by George WhitefieldLanesborough, Massachusetts is created as a townshipSir Robert Walpole, the Prime Minister of Great Britain, popularizes the term "the balance of power" in a speech in ParliamentThe deposed Richard II of England dies by means unknown in Pontefract Castle. It is likely that King Henry IV ordered his death by starvation, to prevent further uprisingsFive-year-old Trần Thiếu Đế is forced to abdicate as ruler of Đại Việt (modern-day Vietnam), in favour of his maternal grandfather and court official Hồ Quý Ly, ending the Trần dynasty after 175 years and starting the Hồ dynasty. Hồ Quý Ly subsequently changes the country's name to Đại NguSir Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester, resigns as England's Admiral of the North and West to join the resistance against King Henry IV. The office will remain vacant for more than six years. Percy will be beheaded in 1403 after his defeat in the Battle of ShrewsburyIn what is now Romania, Alexandru cel Bun (Alexander the Good) is installed as the new Prince (Voivode) of Moldavia by Mircea the Elder, the Voivode of Wallachia, after Mircea removes the reigning monarch, Prince IugaThe Imperial election of 22 May 1400Duke Frederick I of Brunswick-Lüneburg is assassinated after being identified as a rival to Wenceslaus, Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick, on his way back from a May 22 meeting of the prince-electors, is ambushed by a party of men led by Count Henry of Waldeck while passing through the village of Kleinenglis in the Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont (now part of the German state of Hesse, near Borken)Sir John Swinton, an envoy of King Robert III of Scotland, crosses the border into England along with 20 knights, after being given a writ of safe conduct by King Henry IV to allow their travel to negotiate during the standoff between the two British kingdoms between phases of the Hundred Years' WarJagiellonian University is re-established in Krakow by order of King Wladyslaw II, with the creation of the Faculty of Theology at what is then called the Krakow Academy. The restoration is partially financed by the sale of jewelry owned by the King's late wife, Queen Jadwiga, who had died in 1399Writing from Newcastle upon Tyne to Scotland's King Robert III, England's King Henry IV sends a demand that King Robert meet him "on Monday the 23rd of this present month of August, at Edinburgh, where, for this reason and for the peace of tranquility of the realms of England and Scotland, we intend to be," for Robert "to perform the obligation which you owe us" as "overlords of Scotland and of its kings in all temporal matters pertaining to them..." King Henry warns that "considering the effusion of ChristKing Henry IV leads the English Army into Scotland, after receiving no answer from Scotland's King Robert III to his August 6 demand. The troops reach Haddington, East Lothian the next day and at Leith, on the outskirts of Edinburgh, by August 18. As historian James Hamilton Wylie will note almost 500 years later, "the walls of Edinburgh did not fall before this ram's-horn blast, and August 23rd came and went without the required homage or recognitionMeeting at the Lahneck Castle in what is now the German state Rheinland-Pfalz, the princes of the German states vote to depose the Holy Roman Emperor, Wenceslaus, due to his weak leadership and mental illnessesRupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine, is elected as King of the RomansHaving failed in his expedition to receive a pledge of fealty from the King of Scotland, King Henry IV crosses back into EnglandOwain Glyndŵr is proclaimed Prince of Wales by his followers, and begins attacking English strongholds in northeast WalesIn China, Prince Zhu Di of Yan expands his conquests with the capture of Cangzhou in Heibei provinceIn China, the Jingnan campaign of Prince Zhu Di of Yan suffers a serious reversal at the Battle of Dongchang as Imperial General Sheng Yong, replacement of Li Jinglong, encircles the Yan forces. Yan Army General Zhang Yu is killed, but Zhu Di is able to escape to the northern capital at Beijing and regroups his forces for a second attack to take place in FebruaryRupert, King of Germany, is crowned King of the Romans at CologneDavid Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, heir to the throne of Scotland, dies while being held captive by his uncle, Robert Stewart, 1st Duke of AlbanyFollowing the death of Queen Maria of Sicily, her husband Martin I of Sicily, now sole ruler, marries Blanche of NavarreBattle of Nesbit MoorBattle of Bryn GlasBattle of CasalecchioThe Ming dynasty prince Zhu Di and his army occupy the Ming capital, Nanjing. The Jianwen Emperor is either lost or killed and Zhu Di takes over the throne as the Yongle Emperor, marking the end of the Jingnan campaignThe Battle of AnkaraBattle of Holmedon HillKing Henry IV of England marries as his second wife Joan of Navarre, the daughter of King Charles II of Navarre and widow of John IV, Duke of Brittany, at Winchester CathedralAs King Martin I of Aragon helps to end the siege by the French of the papal palace in Avignon, Antipope Benedict XIII flees to AragonStříbrná Skalice in Central Bohemia is razed by Sigismund of LuxembourgRuy Gonzalez de Clavijo, an ambassador from the king of Castile to Timur, leaves Cadiz; he arrives in Samarkand over a year laterBattle of ShrewsburyThe Battle of ModonRebel leader Owain Glyndŵr, having declared himself Prince of Wales, allies with the French against the English. He later begins holding parliamentary assembliesPope Innocent VII succeeds Pope Boniface IX, as the 204th popeIn England, Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, meets Richard le Scrope, Archbishop of York and Earl of Norfolk Thomas Mowbray in Shipton Moor, tricks them to send their rebellious army home, and then imprisons themRichard le Scrope, Archbishop of York and Thomas Mowbray, Earl of Norfolk, are executed in York on Henry IV's ordersMing Dynasty fleet commander Zheng He sets sail from Suzhou, to explore the world for the first timeChristine de Pizan writes a letter to Queen Isabeau, urging her to intervene in the political struggle between the dukes of Burgundy and OrléansWilliam Sawtrey, a Lollard, is the first person to be burned at the stake at Smithfield, LondonThe Samogitians, supported by Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania, rebel against the Teutonic knights and burn two castles. Vytautas is granted increased autonomy by King Jogaila of the Poland–Lithuania unionSultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq of Delhi is restored to powerKing Jogaila of the Poland–Lithuania Union answers the rumblings against his rule of Poland, by marrying Anna of Celje, a granddaughter of Casimir III of PolandJames I becomes King of Scotland, after having been captured by Henry IV of EnglandFrench troops comprising 1,000 men at arms land on Jersey, and fight a battle against 3,000 defendersRichard Whittington is elected Lord Mayor of London for a second full term. He holds this office simultaneously, with that of Mayor of the Calais StapleEric of Pomerania marries Philippa, daughter of Henry IV of EnglandPope Gregory XII succeeds Pope Innocent VII, as the 205th popeJohn II becomes King of CastileAfter several invitations by the Yongle Emperor of China since 1403, the fifth Karmapa of the Karma Kagyu sect of Tibetan Buddhism, the lama Deshin Shekpa, finally visits the Ming dynasty capital, then at Nanjing. In his twenty-two-day visit, he thrills the Ming court with alleged miracles that are recorded in a gigantic scroll, translated into five different languages. In a show of mystical prowess, Deshin Shekpa adds legitimacy to a questionable succession to the throne by Yongle, who had killed his nepheThe Ming dynasty of China under the Yongle Emperor conquers Vietnam, capturing Hồ Quý Ly and his sons, ending the Vietnamese Hồ dynastyA solemn truce between John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy and Louis I, Duke of Orléans is agreed under the auspicies of John, Duke of BerryThe Duke of Orleans is assassinated; war breaks out again between the Burgundians and his followersBattle of Bramham MoorThorstein Olafssøn marries Sigrid Bjørnsdatter in Hvalsey Church, in the last recorded event of the Norse history of GreenlandEmir Edigu of the Golden Horde reaches MoscowThe Order of the Dragon is founded under King Sigismund of HungaryThe Welsh surrender Harlech Castle to the EnglishThe Council of Pisa opens. On June 5 it deposes Pope Gregory XII and Antipope Benedict XIII, and on June 26 crowns Petros Philargos as Pope Alexander V; he is subsequently regarded as an antipopeThe Council of Pisa closesThe University of Leipzig opensLouis II of Anjou founds the University of Aix-en-ProvenceThe Aragonese capture Oristano, capital of the Giudicato di Arborea in SardiniaThe Battle of KosmidionBattle of EdirneBattle of GrunwaldThe First Peace of Thorn is signed at Thorn in the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights, ending the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic WarSüleyman Çelebi is killed after being forced to flee his capital, Edirne, by his brother Musa Çelebi. Rule of the Ottoman domains in Europe (Rumelia) passes to MusaMing Dynasty Admiral Zheng He returns to Nanjing after his second voyage, and presents the Sinhalese king, captured during the Ming–Kotte War, to the Yongle EmperorBattle of HarlawThe Treaty of Selymbria is concluded between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of VeniceKing Henry IV of England calls his ninth parliamentHenry IV dismisses Prince Henry and his supporters from the governmentThe Medici Family are made official bankers of the PapacyErnest, Duke of Austria, marries Cymburgis of MasoviaThe University of St Andrews in Scotland is granted a charter of privilege by the local bishopEmperor Go-Komatsu abdicates, and Emperor Shoko accedes to the throne of JapanEric of Pomerania becomes sole ruler of the Kalmar Union (Sweden, Denmark and Norway), upon the death of Queen MargaretHenry V becomes King of England following the death of his father Henry IVBattle of ÇamurluThe University of St Andrews in Scotland is chartered by papal bullThe Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania sign the Union of HorodłoMichael Küchmeister von Sternberg becomes the 28th Grand Master of the Teutonic OrderJoanna II succeeds her brother Ladislaus, as Queen of NaplesThe Council of Constance begins in order to end the western schismFrederick I becomes Elector of BrandenburgThe Council of Constance condemns the writings of John Wycliffe and asks Jan Hus to recant in public his heresy; after his denial, he is tried for heresy, excommunicated, then sentenced to be burned at the stakePope Gregory XII officially opens the Council of Constance, and then abdicates. He is the last pope to resign, until Pope Benedict XVI in 2013Jan Hus is burned at the stake in KonstanzHenry V of England is informed of the Southampton Plot against him; he has the leaders arrested and executed, before invading FranceThe Portuguese conquest of CeutaThe Battle of AgincourtThe Republic of Ragusa is the first state in Europe to outlaw slaveryBattle of GallipoliThe Catholic Church burns Jerome of Prague as a hereticAn English fleet, led by the Earl of Huntingdon, defeats a fleet of Genoese carracks and captures their admiral, the "Bastard of Bourbon"Avignon Pope Benedict XIII is deposed, bringing to an end the Great Western SchismKing Henry V of England begins using English in correspondence (back to England from France whilst on campaign), marking the beginning of this king's continuous usage of English in prose, and the beginning of the restoration of English as an official language for the first time since the Norman Conquest, some 350 years earlierPope Martin V succeeds Pope Gregory XII (who abdicated in 1415), as the 206th popeMircea I of Wallachia is succeeded by Michael I of WallachiaThe Council of Constance endsJohn the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, captures ParisKing Taejong (r. 1400-1418) of the Joseon dynasty abdicates the throne. King Sejong ascends to the throneRouen surrenders to Henry V of England, which brings Normandy under the control of EnglandThe first Defenestration of Prague occurs in BohemiaJohn the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy is assassinated by adherents of the DauphinThe Ottoman–Venetian peace treaty ends four years of conflict, by recognizing Venetian possessions in the Aegean and the BalkansThe Treaty of TroyesHenry the Navigator is appointed Grand Master of the Military Order of ChristCatherine of Valois marries King Henry V of EnglandTroops of the Republic of Venice capture Udine after a long siege, ending the independence of the Patriarchal State of Friuli, run by the Patriarch of AquileiaConstruction of the dome of Florence Cathedral is started, after Filippo Brunelleschi wins the commission for his "double shell" designBeijing is officially designated the capital of the Ming Dynasty, during the same year that the Forbidden City, the seat of government, is completedYongle Emperor, third emperor of the Ming Dynasty, shifts the Ming capital from Nanjing to BeijingZheng He receives imperial order from Yongle Emperor to bring imperial letters, silk products, and other gifts to various rulers of countries around the Indian OceanBattle of BaugéMehmed I, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, dies and is succeeded by his son, Murad IIBattle of Německý BrodUse of the Spanish era dating system in the Kingdom of Portugal ceasesHenry VI becomes King of England, aged nine monthsWith the death of King Charles VI of France, Henry VI of England is proclaimed King of France in Paris, while his maternal uncle, the Dauphin, Charles, is proclaimed King Charles VII of France in BourgesThe Electorate of Saxony merges with the Margravate of Meissen and the Duchy of Saxe-WittenbergThe island of Tombelaine, off of the coast of France, is taken by English forces in order to be used as a base to attack Mont Saint-MichelThe Treaty of Amiens is signed as a mutual defense treaty between the Duchy of Burgundy, the Duchy of Brittany and the Kingdom of EnglandFrancesco Foscari is elected the new Doge of the Republic of Venice after the death of Tommaso Mocenigo. He will serve as the Venetian Republic's executive for 34 years before being forced to abdicate a few days before his death in 1457Battle of HořiceAshikaga Yoshimochi abdicates as shogun of Japan and is succeeded by his son, Ashikaga YoshikazuThe Treaty of Melno signed on September 27 to end the Gollub War between the State of the Teutonic Order (on the Baltic Sea, with a capital at Marienburg) and the alliance of Poland and Lithuania, is ratified by all three partiesAfter a two-day battle, Turakhan Beg, Ottoman governor of Thessaly, , breaks through the Hexamilion wall, and ravages the Peloponnese Peninsula in GreeceGil Sánchez Muñoz y Carbón, a Spanish Roman Catholic bishop, is elected by bishops in Avignon as the third "antipope", succeeding the late Antipope Benedict XIII. , who had died on May 23 after a reign of more than 20 years. Sánchez Muñoz takes the name of Antipope Clement VIII[8] as the Avignon clergy disagree with Pope Martin V of RomePope Martin V gives his approval of the Treaty of MelnoBattle of CravantAtaullah Muhammad Shah I begins a 50-year reign as the Sultan of Kedah in what is now Malaysia, following the death of his father, Sulaiman Shah I, who had reigned for 50 years after becoming Sultan in 1373The Treaty of Sveti Srdj ends the Second Scutari War, waged between the Serbian Despotate and the Venetian Republic,[10] over Scutari, and other former possessions of Zeta, captured by the VenetiansBattle of La BrossinièreThe Second Parliament of King Henry VI of England assembles after having been summoned on September 1. The House of Commons, led by John Russell, will consider laws until its adjournment on February 28After a two-year expedition to Byzantium, Giovanni Aurispa arrives in Venice with largest and finest collection of Greek language texts up to that time, including 238 ancient manuscriptsIn what is now the Czech Republic, General Sigismund Korybut, commander of the Hussite Army, withdraws his troops from Prague on the orders of Vytautas, Grand Duke of Lithuania and Władysław II Jagiełło, King of PolandJacopo Caldora and Micheletto Attendolo, for the Kingdom of Naples, defeat Braccio da Montone, for Alfonso V of AragonBattle of VerneuilKale Kye-Taung Nyo becomes King of Ava by having his lover, Queen Shin Bo-Me, assassinate his 8-year-old nephew, King Min HlaThe Old University of Leuven, Belgium is foundedBattle of AussigBattle of the HerringsJoan of Arc enters Orléans with a relief expeditionThe Tourelles, the last English siege fortification at Orléans, falls. Joan of Arc becomes the hero of the battle by returning, wounded, to lead the final chargeThe English, weakened by disease and lack of supplies, depart OrléansThe first band of Gypsies visits Paris, according to an account of the citizens of ParisLincoln College, a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England, is founded by the Bishop of LincolnThe Catalan earthquake of February 2, 1428Dan II leads an army against the Ottomans at Golubac Fortress, obtaining a treaty that will allow him a semi-peaceful rule in Wallachia, until 1432Emperor Go-Hanazono accedes to the throne of JapanThomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, is mortally wounded in an unsuccessful assault on Orléans. He is succeeded in command by William de la Pole, 4th Earl of SuffolkBattle of PatayCharles VII of France is crowned in RheimsJoan of Arc liberates Saint-Pierre-le-MoûtierPhilip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, marries Isabella of PortugalPhilip the Good founds the Order of the Golden Fleece.Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians, while leading an army to relieve CompiègneWilliam Waynflete becomes vicar of Skendleby, LincolnshireŠvitrigaila succeeds his cousin as ruler of LithuaniaPretrial investigations for Joan of Arc begin at Rouen in France, which is under English occupationPope Eugene IV succeeds Pope Martin V, to become the 207th pope19-year-old Joan of Arc is burned at the stake in RouenThe Teutonic Knights and Švitrigaila sign the Treaty of Christmemel, creating an anti-Polish allianceThe Treaty of Medina del Campo is signed, consolidating peace between Portugal and CastilleBattle of IlavaA treaty in Suceava concludes an attack on Poland, launched this year by Alexander I of Moldavia during the Lithuanian Civil WarVlad, future Prince of Wallachia as Vlad II Dracul, is made a member of the Order of the Dragon. Because of this, his son Vlad III the Impaler will inspire the literary figure named DraculaHenry VI of England is crowned King of France at Notre-Dame de ParisIliaș succeeds his father as Prince of MoldaviaJan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece is first presented to the publicBattle of San RomanoSigismund Kęstutaitis attempts the capture or murder of Švitrigaila, his rival for the throne of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Švitrigaila manages to escapeSigismund is crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome.[1] There has been no crowned Emperor since the death of his father, Charles IV, in 1378Edward I becomes King of PortugalThe foundation stone of Nantes Cathedral in Nantes, France, is laidSuero de Quiñones and his companions stage the Passo Honroso, at the Órbigo in LeónKing Eric of Pomerania is deposed from the Swedish throne at a meeting in Vadstena. He still retains power in Denmark and Norway, thoughThe University of Catania is founded in ItalySweden's first Riksdag of the Estates is summoned under rebel leader Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, who is elected rikshövitsman (military commander of the realm), in the absence of a king, on January 13Sicut Dudum, a papal bull forbidding the enslavement of the Guanche natives in Canary Islands by the Spanish, is promulgated by Pope Eugene IVThe Kingdom of Naples passes to René of AnjouBattle of PonzaBattle of WiłkomierzThe Treaty of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy ends the English-Burgundian allianceEric of Pomerania is reinstated as king of Sweden, only briefly, however, he is once again deposed in January of the following yearEric of Pomerania is deposed from the Swedish throne for the second time, only three months after having been reinstated. Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson remains the leader of the land, in his capacity of rikshövitsman (military commander of the realm)Following the murder of Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, while on his way to Stockholm for negotiations. Charles Knutsson temporarily holds the position of leader of Sweden alone. The probable first meeting of the Riksdag of the Estates takes place afterwards, in Uppsala, SwedenScottish princess Margaret Stewart marries the future Louis XI of France in ToursThe Incorporated Guild of Smiths in Newcastle upon Tyne (England) is foundedThe Hussite Wars effectively end in Bohemia. Sigismund is accepted as KingBrunelleschi's Dome at Florence Cathedral is dedicatedEric of Pomerania is once again reinstated as king of Sweden. Charles Knutsson, at the same time, resigns the post of rikshövitsmanBattle of PiperdeanIn a ceremony in Holyrood Abbey, James II of Scotland is crowned at the age of six by Pope Eugene IV. For security of the crown, the capital of Scotland is moved to Edinburgh, from DunfermlineMalmö in Denmark (now Sweden) receives its current coat of armsSigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, diesAlbert II of Habsburg becomes King of HungaryThe Council of Florence opens in FerraraAll Souls' College is founded in the University of Oxford by Henry Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Henry VI of England as a graduate institutionCharles VII of France issues the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, giving the French church control over the appointment of bishops, and depriving the Pope of French ecclesiastical revenuesAfonso V becomes King of PortugalBattle of GrotnikiDate of Venerable Macarius' Miracle of the Moose, according to Russian hagiographersPope Eugene IV issues the Bull of Union with the Greeks, proclaiming the end of the East–West Schism. The bull is repudiated by most eastern bishops shortly thereafterCardinal Giovanni Vitelleschi captures Foligno, ending Trinci's signoriaEric of Pomerania, King of Sweden, Denmark and Norway, is declared deposed in Sweden. Karl Knutsson Bonde continues to serve as Regent of SwedenIn England, Plymouth becomes the first town incorporated by the English ParliamentThe Prussian Confederation is formedChristopher of Bavaria is elected King of DenmarkEton College is founded by Henry VI of EnglandBreton knight Gilles de Rais is taken into custody, upon an accusation of murdering children brought against him by the Bishop of NantesGilles de Rais confesses, and is sentenced to deathKing's College, Cambridge, is founded by King Henry VI of EnglandBattle of SamoborAlfonso V of Aragon lays siege to NaplesThe Peace of Cremona (1441) ends the war between the Republic of Venice and the Duchy of MilanAlfonso of Aragon proclaims himself King of NaplesBattle of St. Jakob an der SihlBattle of NishSkanderbeg and his forces, rebelling against the Ottoman Empire, liberate Krujë, in Middle Albania, and raise the Albanian flagThe League of Lezhë, an alliance of Albanian principalities, is established in Lezhë; George Kastrioti Skanderbeg is proclaimed commander of the Albanian resistanceThe Treaty of Tours, signed between England and France, secures a truce in the Hundred Years' War for five yearsCosimo de' Medici founds a public library at San Marco, FlorenceBattle of TorviollA Portuguese fleet of caravels, led by Lançarote de Freitas, lands 235 slaves at Algarve, PortugalThe Peace of Szeged is signed between the Turkish Ottoman Empire and HungaryBattle of St. Jakob an der BirsBattle of VarnaBattle of MokraThe Battle of Ragaz marked the last military conflict of the Old Zurich War between the Swiss Confederacy and the Habsburgs. 1,200 Confederates defeat the Austrian army, commanded by Hans von Rechberg and Wolfhard V. von Brandis, the Habsburg bailiff of Feldkirch. Among other things, the banners of the lords of Brandis are lost to the confederates and later transferred to the church in Sarnen. According to contemporary accounts, around 900 men from the Habsburg army and around 100 men from the Swiss army feJohn Hunyadi is proclaimed regent, bestowing the title "governor" upon him. His election was primarily promoted by the lesser nobility, but Hunyadi had by that time become one of the richest barons of the kingdom. His domains covered an area exceeding 800,000 hectares (2,000,000 acres).[2] Hunyadi was one of the few contemporaneous barons who spent a significant part of their revenues to finance the wars against the Ottomans, thus bearing a large share of the cost of fighting for many yearsAn armistice between Duchy of Austria and the Swiss Confederation comes into forceLidköping got its charter, and thus qualifies as one of the now defunct Cities of SwedenAfter many years of fruitless negotiations between Christopher of Bavaria and Eric of Pomerania, a Swedish war march to Gotland was launched in the early summer of 1446. King Christopher came with a force to the island and on an open field in Västergarn with crossbowmen at gunpoint behind each monarch's back, regular peace negotiations took placeBattle of OtonetëThe hangul alphabet is proclaimed in Korea, by King Sejong the Great. The Hunmin Jeongeum, published during the year, is considered the start of this brand new scientific writing systemAfter hesitating for several weeks, Sultan Murad II, of the Ottoman Empire, destroys the Hexamilion wall, in an assault that includes cannons. Murad and the Ottoman governor of Thessaly, Turakhan Beg, ravage the Peloponnese Peninsula at will, with the Sultan devastating the northern shore, while Glarentza and Turakhan raid in the interior. The Despotate of the Morea is turned into an Ottoman vassal statePope Nicholas V succeeds Pope Eugene IV, to become the 208th popeRoman II seizes the throne of Moldavia after killing his uncle, Stephen II, and will have his other uncle, Petru as co-rulerChristopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, dies with no designated heir, leaving all three kingdoms with vacant thrones. Brothers Bengt Jönsson Oxenstierna and Nils Jönsson Oxenstierna are selected to serve as co-regents of SwedenFirst Battle of OranikThe Regency period of Sweden ends with the election of Karl Knutsson Bonde, as King Charles VIII of SwedenCharles VIII of Sweden is publicly hailed as king at Mora Stones, and is crowned in Uppsala Cathedral the following dayChristian of Oldenburg, betrothed to Queen Dowager Dorothea of Brandenburg, becomes King Christian I of DenmarkPeace between Albania and Venice is establishedSecond Battle of KosovoPope Nicholas V appoints Rudolf of Diepholt, Bishop of Utrecht, as cardinalConstantine XI Palaiologos is crowned Byzantine Emperor at Mistra; he will be the last in a line of rulers that can be traced to the founding of RomeEnglish forces capture Fougères in BrittanyThe last Antipope, Felix V, abdicatesPope Nicholas V is elected by the Council of BaselThe Council of Basel dissolves itselfBattle of AlfarrobeiraMargrave Albrecht takes Lichtenau Fortress from NurembergThe Crisis of the Tumu FortressThe French recapture Rouen from the EnglishJohn de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk, marries Lady Margaret BeaufortFrancesco Sforza enters Milan after a siege, becoming Duke of the city-state, and founding a dynasty that will rule Milan for a centuryBattle of FormignyAbdal-Latif Mirza, a Timurid dynasty monarch, is assassinatedCharles VIII of Sweden, also serving as Carl I of Norway, is declared deposed from the latter throne, in favor of Christian I of DenmarkCaen surrenders to the FrenchCherbourg, the last English territory in Normandy, surrenders to the FrenchJews are expelled from Lower Bavaria, by order of Duke Ludwig IXThe University of Barcelona is foundedPope Nicholas V issues a Papal Bull[1] to establish The University of Glasgow; classes are initially held in Glasgow CathedralMurad II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, dies and is succeeded (on February 18) by his son, Mehmed IILouis XI of France marries Charlotte of SavoyCelje acquires market town status and town rights, by orders from Count Frederic II of CeljeIn the Delhi Sultanate, the Afghan Lodi Dynasty succeeds the Turkish Sayyid DynastyFrench troops under Jean de Dunois invade Guyenne, and capture BordeauxThe French capture Bayonne, the last English stronghold in GuyenneWilliam Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas is killed by James II of Scotland, at Stirling CastleBattle of Los AlporchonesFrederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, becomes the last to be crowned in RomePope Nicholas V issues the bull Dum Diversas, legitimising the colonial slave tradeBattle of CastillonBattle of GavereThe French recapture Bordeaux, ending the Hundred Years' War and leaving the English retaining only Calais on French soilLadislaus the Posthumous is crowned King of Bohemia, although George of Poděbrady remains in control of the governmentSejo of Joseon kills his enemy General Kim Jong-seo and gains control of the government in Joseon Korea (where this rebellion is called Gyeyujeongnan)Casimir IV of Poland renounces allegiance to the Teutonic KnightsRichard Plantagenet, Duke of York, becomes Protector for King Henry VI of England, who is in a catatonic stateThe Treaty of LodiBattle of ChojnicePope Nicholas V publishes Romanus Pontifex, an encyclical addressed to King Afonso V of Portugal, which sanctions the conquest of non-Christian lands, and the reduction of native non-Christian populations to 'perpetual slavery'. (Later there will be a dramatic reversal when, in 1537, the bull Sublimis Deus of Pope Paul III forbids the enslavement of non-Christians.)The Gutenberg Bible is the first book printed with movable typePope Calixtus III succeeds Pope Nicholas V, as the 209th popeBattle of ArkinholmFirst Battle of St AlbansThe conflict between Vladislav II of Wallachia and John Hunyadi escalates, so the latter decides to support Vlad the Impaler for the throne of Wallachia, the following yearSecond Battle of OranikA retrial of Joan of Arc acquits her of heresy, 25 years after her executionVladislav II, reigning Prince of Wallachia, is killed in hand-to-hand combat by Vlad the Impaler, who succeeds himThe University of Greifswald is established, making it the second oldest university in Northern Europe. Due to border changes, from 1648 to 1815 it was the oldest in Sweden, and from 1815 to 1945 the oldest in PrussiaTwo earthquakes in central Italy kills 12,000–70,000 peopleAfter years of captivity and absence from the Ming throne, the Zhengtong Emperor of China is reinstated, as the Tianshun EmperorCharles VIII of Sweden is declared deposed. The Archbishop of Sweden, Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, and statesman Erik Axelsson Tott become co-regents of Sweden. The throne is then offered to Christian I of Denmark and NorwayKing James II of Scotland decrees that ". . . ye futebawe and ye golf be uterly cryt done and not usyt . . ", the first historical mention of the game of golfŞtefan cel Mare secures the throne of Moldavia, which he retains for the next 47 yearsChristian I is elected king of Sweden, ending the war between Sweden and Denmark and restoring the Kalmar UnionThe Dutch city of Dordrecht is devastated by fireThe Mainz Psalter, the second major book printed with movable type in the West, the first to be wholly finished mechanically (including colour), and the first to carry a printed date, is printed for the Elector of MainzBattle of AlbulenaMatthias Corvinus becomes king of Hungary, at age 14The Loveday is staged in London, by which Henry VI of England attempts to unite the warring factions who have triggered the War of the RosesPope Pius II succeeds Pope Callixtus III, as the 210th popeKing Afonso V of Portugal conquers Ksar es-Seghir, in North AfricaThe Order of Our Lady of Bethlehem is founded by Pope Pius II, to defend the island of LemnosBattle of Blore HeathWith a royal force advancing on his fortress at Ludlow, Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, flees to Ireland, while his ally Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (Warwick the Kingmaker, eldest son of the Earl of Salisbury) goes to CalaisBattle of SandwichKing Christian I of Denmark issues the Treaty of Ribe, enabling himself to become Count of Holstein, and regain control of Denmark's lost Duchy of SchleswigThe University of Basel is founded in SwitzerlandRichard Neville, Earl of Warwick and Edward, Earl of March (eldest son of Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York) land in England with an army, and march on LondonThe cannons of the Tower of London, still in Lancastrian hands, are fired on the city of London, which is mostly in Yorkist hands. The Tower is surrendered on July 19Battle of NorthamptonWhile supervising a siege of English occupiers of Roxburgh Castle, King James II of Scotland is killed, when one of his own cannons explodesBattle of WakefieldBattle of Mortimer's CrossSecond Battle of St AlbansThe Duke of York seizes London, and proclaims himself King Edward IV of EnglandHenry VI of England is deposed by Edward, Duke of YorkBattle of TowtonStephen Tomašević becomes the last King of Bosnia, on the death of his father Stephen Thomas; he is crowned on November 17, in Saint Mary's Church, JajceEdward, Richard of York's son, is crowned as Edward IV, King of England (reigns until 1483)Louis XI of France succeeds Charles VII of France as king (reigns until 1483)The Rebellion of Cao QinIvan III of Russia becomes the ruler of Russia, following the death of his father, VasiliNight attack at TârgovișteBattle of SeckenheimBattle of ŚwiecinoFrench poet François Villon receives a reprieve from death by hanging, and is banished from Paris (his further life is undocumented)Battle of Vistula LagoonThe Truce of Hesdin ends French support for the House of Lancaster in EnglandBattle of Hedgeley MoorEdward IV of England secretly marries Elizabeth Woodville, and keeps the marriage a secret for five months afterwardsBattle of HexhamA 15-year-truce between the kingdoms of England and Scotland is signedPope Pius II himself shoulders the cross of the Crusades, and departs for Ancona to participate in person. He names Skanderbeg general captain of the Holy See, under the title Athleta Christi. This plan forces Skanderbeg to break his ten-year peace treaty with the Ottomans signed in 1463, by attacking their forces near OhridChristian I of Denmark and Norway, who is also serving as King of Sweden, is declared deposed from the latter throne. His deposed predecessor Charles VIII of Sweden is re-elected to the throne on August 9Emperor Go-Hanazono of Japan abdicates, and is succeeded by his son, Emperor Go-TsuchimikadoPope Paul II succeeds Pope Pius II, as the 211th popeChilia is conquered by Stephen the Great of Moldavia, following a second siegeAmadeus IX becomes Duke of SavoyCharles VIII of Sweden is deposed. Clergyman Kettil Karlsson Vasa becomes Regent of SwedenBattle of MontlhéryFormer King Henry VI of England is captured by Yorkist forces. On July 24 he is imprisoned in the Tower of London. His queen consort Margaret of Anjou and Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, have fled to FranceIn Sweden, Regent Kettil Karlsson Vasa, Bishop of Linköping, is succeeded as Regent by Archbishop Jöns Bengtsson OxenstiernaPhilip the Good is succeeded as Duke of Burgundy, by Charles the BoldBattle of BrustemBattle of ChapakchurRegent of Sweden Erik Axelsson Tott supports the re-election of deposed Charles VIII of Sweden to the throneBattle of BaiaCatherine Cornaro is married by proxy to James II of Cyprus, beginning the Venetian conquest of CyprusBaeda Maryam succeeds his father Zara Yaqob, as Emperor of EthiopiaThe Treaty of Péronne is signed by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and Louis XI of FranceBattle of QarabaghBattle of EdgcoteFerdinand II of Aragon marries Isabella I of Castile in Valladolid, bringing about a dynastic unionBattle of Losecoat FieldBattle of Nibley GreenCharles VIII of Sweden, who has served three terms as King of Sweden, dies. Sten Sture the Elder proclaims himself Regent of Sweden the following daySten Sture is recognised as Swedish ruler by the estatesThe Ottomans capture EuboeaBattle of LipnicA rebellion orchestrated by King Edward IV of England's former ally, Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, forces the King to flee England to seek support from his brother-in-law, Charles the Bold of BurgundyWarwick releases Henry VI of England from the Tower of London, and restores him to the throneLê Thánh Tông leads the Đại Việt army into Champa, conquering the country in less than three monthsEmperor Lê Thánh Tông captures the Champa capital, establishing new regions in middle VietnamBattle of BarnetBattle of TewkesburyKing Edward IV celebrates his victories with a triumphal parade on his return to London. The captured Queen Margaret is paraded through the streets. The same day Henry VI of England is murdered in the Tower of London, eliminating all Lancastrian opposition to the House of YorkBattle of ShelonPope Sixtus IV succeeds Pope Paul II, to become the 212th popeKing Afonso V of Portugal conquers the Moroccan town of ArzilaThe Portuguese occupy Tangier, after its population flees the cityBattle of BrunkebergThe islands of São Tomé and Príncipe are discovered by Portuguese navigators João de Santarém and Pedro EscobarOrkney and Shetland are returned by Norway to Scotland, as a result of a defaulted dowry paymentA mount of piety is established in Siena (Italy), origin of Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena, the world's oldest surviving retail bankThe first printed edition of Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy is published in FolignoThe Cathedral and Metropolitical Church of Saint Peter in York, England, commonly known as York Minster, is declared complete and consecratedThe city council of Amsterdam prohibits snowball fights: "Neymant en moet met sneecluyten werpen nocht maecht noch wijf noch manspersoon." ("No one shall throw with snowballs, neither men nor (unmarried) women.")The first complete Inside edition of Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine (Latin translation) is published in MilanBattle of OtlukbeliThe Senate of the Republic of Venice enacts the Venetian Patent Statute, one of the earliest patent systems in the world.[1] New and inventive devices, once put into practice, have to be communicated to the Republic to obtain the right to prevent others from using them. This is considered the first modern patent systemBy signing the Treaty of London, Charles the Bold of Burgundy agrees to support Edward IV of England's planned invasion of FranceUpon the death of Henry IV of Castile, a civil war ensues between his designated successor Isabella I of Castile, and her niece Juana, who is supported by her husband, Afonso V of Portugal. Isabella wins the civil war after a lengthy struggle, when her husband, the newly crowned Ferdinand II of Aragon, comes to her aidBattle of VasluiEdward IV of England lands in Calais, in support of the Duchy of Burgundy against FranceThe Treaty of Picquigny ends the brief war between France and EnglandBattle on the PlantaThe original Landshut Wedding takes place, between George, Duke of Bavaria, and Hedwig JagiellonBattle of ToroBattle of GrandsonBattle of MoratBattle of Valea AlbăVlad the Impaler declares himself reigning Voivode (Prince) of Wallachia for the third and last time. He is killed on the march to Bucharest, probably before the end of December. His head is sent to his old enemy, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IIBattle of NancyMary of Burgundy, the daughter of Charles the Bold, is forced by her disgruntled subjects to sign the Great Privilege, by which the Flemish cities recover all the local and communal rights which have been abolished by the decrees of the dukes of Burgundy, in their efforts to create in the Low Countries a centralized stateUppsala University is founded, becoming the first university in Sweden and all of ScandinaviaMary of Burgundy marries Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, in Ghent, bringing her Flemish and Burgundian lands into the Holy Roman Empire, and detaching them from FranceNovgorod surrenders to Ivan III, Grand Prince of MoscowRichard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York is married to Anne de Mowbray, 8th Countess of NorfolkGeorge Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, convicted of treason against his older brother Edward IV of England, is privately executed in the Tower of LondonThe Pazzi Family attacks Lorenzo de' Medici, and kills his brother Giuliano, during High Mass in Florence CathedralBattle of GiornicoFerdinand II ascends the throne of Aragon, and rules together with his wife Isabella I, Queen of Castile, over most of the Iberian peninsulaWilliam Caxton produces Earl Rivers' translation into English of Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres, at his press in Westminster, the first full-length book printed in England on a printing pressThe Treaty of Constantinople is signed between the Ottoman Empire and Republic of Venice; Venice will cede Argo, Negroponte, Lemnos and Shkodër, and pay an annual tribute of 10,000 golden ducatsRatification of the Treaty of Constantinople in Venice ends the Siege of Shkodra after fifteen months, and brings all of Albania under the Ottoman EmpireChristopher Columbus, an experienced mariner and successful trader in the thriving Genoese expatriate community in Portugal, marries Felipa Perestrelo Moniz (Italian on her father's side), and receives as dowry her late father's maps and papers, charting the seas and winds around the Madeira Islands, and other Portuguese possessions in the Ocean SeaThe First Battle of GuinegateThe Treaty of Alcáçovas (also known as the Treaty or Peace of Alcáçovas-Toledo) is signed between the Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon on one side, and the King of Portugal and his son on the other side, ending the four-year War of the Castilian SuccessionBattle of BreadfieldFerdinand and Isabella of Spain recognize the African conquests of Afonso V of Portugal, and he cedes the Canary Islands to Spain (see Treaty of Alcáçovas)An Ottoman army lands near Otranto, Italy. Pope Sixtus IV calls for a crusade to drive it awayConsorts and co-rulers Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile initiate the Spanish Inquisition (looking for heretics and unconverted Jews)Mehmed II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, dies and is succeeded by his son, Bayezid IIChristian I, King of Denmark and Norway, dies and is succeeded by his son John (1481–1513)The papal bull Aeterni Regis grants all land south of the Canary Islands to PortugalFire destroys the roof and the spires of Reims CathedralJohn II of Portugal starts to rule in his own rightAlphonso II of Naples recaptures the city of OtrantoWith the death of Duke Charles IV of Anjou, Anjou reverts to the French crown under Louis XI of France, as does the Provence, which until then was part of the Holy Roman EmpireBattle of WestbroekA Portuguese fleet, commanded by Diogo de Azambuja, arrives at the mouth of the River Benya on the Gold Coast, where the fort of São Jorge da Mina (Elmina Castle) is erectedProbable first printing of the Torah, in BolognaThe village of Alhama de Granada in Spain is taken by Christian forces, starting the Granada War to expel the Moors from the Iberian PeninsulaPope Sixtus IV, in a special bull, grants self-government rights to the Italian town of Ascoli PicenoThe death of Mary of Burgundy triggers the first of the Flemish revolts against Maximilian of AustriaSymeon I succeeds Maximus III as Ecumenical Patriarch of ConstantinopleTreaty of Arras divides the Burgundian Netherlands between King Louis XI of France and Archduke Maximilian I of HabsburgThe Jews are expelled from AndalusiaThe General Council of the Inquisition is created in SpainEdward V becomes King of EnglandGran Canaria, the main island of the Canary Islands, is conquered by the Kingdom of Castile, a very important step in the expansion of SpainWilliam Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings, is executed, in the first recorded execution at the Tower of LondonThe powerful Fernando II, Duke of Braganza is executed in Portugal, followed by more than 80 other noblemen, for his plot against the royal crownBefore his coronation, King Edward V of England is deposed by his uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who becomes King as Richard III of EnglandRichard III and Anne Neville are crowned king and Queen of England, at Westminster AbbeyJohn of Denmark is crowned King of NorwayThe Sistine Chapel opens in the Apostolic Palace in RomeThe Princes in the Tower, uncrowned 12-year-old Edward V of England and his 10-year-old brother, Richard, Duke of York, are perhaps murdered this night in the Tower of LondonWilliam Caxton, the first printer of books in English, prints his translation of Aesop's Fables in LondonCharles VIII of France (Charles l'Affable) is crownedThe first known book printed by a woman, Anna Rügerin, is an edition of Eike of Repgow's compendium of customary law, the Sachsenspiegel, produced in AugsburgPortuguese sea captain Diogo Cão finds the mouth of the Congo RiverBattle of Lochmaben FairPope Innocent VIII succeeds Pope Sixtus IV, as the 213th popeTreaty of NottinghamPope Innocent VIII issues the Papal bull Summis desiderantes affectibus, giving the inquisition a mission to hunt heretics and witches in Germany, led by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob SprengerBattle of BosworthMuscovian forces conquer TverPeter Arbues is assaulted while praying in the cathedral at Zaragoza, Spain; he dies on September 17. He had been appointed Inquisitor of Aragon by the Inquisitor General, Tomás de Torquemada, in the campaign against heresy and crypto-JudaismKing Henry VII of England is crownedThe Peace of Bourges stops the Mad WarKing Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York are married, uniting the House of Lancaster and the House of York, after the Wars of the RosesArchduke Maximilian I of Habsburg is elected King of the Romans at Frankfurt (crowned April 9 at Aachen)Lord Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is born in the town of Nadia, West Bengal, India, just after sunset. He is regarded as an incarnation, or avatar, of Lord Krsna, and later comes to inaugurate the sankirtana movement, or the chanting of the Holy Names of the Lord. This chanting, or mantra meditation, is first brought to the United States in 1965, by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami PrabhupadaThe adoption of the Sentència Arbitral de Guadalupe ends the War of the Remences, in the Principality of CataloniaRichard Foxe becomes Bishop of ExeterLambert Simnel is crowned King "Edward VI of England" in Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, Ireland. He claims to be Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, and challenges Henry VII for the throne of England, where he lands on June 5Battle of Stoke FieldHongzhi becomes Emperor of China (Ming Dynasty)Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria promulgates the Reinheitsgebot, specifying three ingredients – water, malt and hops – for the brewing of beerThe Royal Netherlands Navy is formed, by the decree of Maximillian of AustriaBartolomeu Dias of Portugal lands in Mossel Bay, after rounding the Cape of Good Hope at the tip of Africa, becoming the first known European to travel this far south, and entering the Indian OceanChoe Bu (1454–1504), the Korean Commissioner of Registers for the island of Cheju, shipwrecks on the south east coast of China in Taizhou, ZhejiangBattle of SauchieburnJoseon Dynasty official Choe Bu returns to Korea, after months of shipwrecked travel in ChinaBattle of Saint-Aubin-du-CormierAnne of Brittany becomes Duchess of Brittany at the age of 11. Her marriage to King Charles VIII in 1491 effectively ends Breton independence from FranceThe Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to the Republic of VeniceThe Treaty of Medina del Campo between England and Spain includes provision for a marriage between Arthur, the son of King Henry VII of England, and Princess Catherine of AragonKing James IV grants Andrew, Lord Gray, the lands and Barony of Lundie in ScotlandSikandar Lodi succeeds Bahlul Khan Lodi as sultanArthur Tudor is named Prince of WalesJeannetto de Tassis is appointed Chief Master of Postal Services in Innsbruck; his descendants, the Thurn und Taxis Family, later run much of the postal system of EuropeAnne of Brittany announces that all those who ally themselves with the king of France will be considered guilty of the crime of Lèse-majestéCharles II becomes Duke of Savoy at age 1; his mother Blanche of Montferrato is regentJohn of Kastav finishes a cycle of frescoes in the Holy Trinity Church, Hrastovlje (modern-day southwestern Slovenia)The first edition of the chivalric romance Tirant lo Blanch, by Joanot Martorell, is printed in ValenciaAnne of Brittany is married to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor by proxyAlain I of Albret signs the Treaty of Moulins with Charles VIII of FranceThe ruler of the Kingdom of Kongo, Nkuwu Nzinga, is baptised by Portuguese missionaries, adopting the baptismal name of João ILouis of Orléans is released by Charles VIII of France after three years of imprisonmentMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary sign the Peace of Pressburg, formally ending the Austrian–Hungarian WarAn auto-da-fé held in Brasero de la Dehesa (outside Ávila) concludes the case of the Holy Child of La Guardia, with the execution of several Jewish and converso suspectsThe Granada War is effectively brought to an end (and the Siege of Granada extended for two months) with the signing of the Treaty of Granada between the Catholic Monarchs of Spain and the Moorish Emirate of GranadaKing Charles VIII of France marries Anne of Brittany, forcing her to break her marriage with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, thus incorporating Brittany into the kingdom of FranceThe Truce of Coldstream secures a five-year peace, between Scotland and EnglandMuhammad XII, the last Emir of Granada, surrenders his city to the army of the Catholic Monarchs (Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile) after a lengthy siege, ending the ten-year Granada War and the centuries-long Reconquista, and bringing an end to 780 years of Muslim control in Al-AndalusFerdinand and Isabella enter GranadaChristopher Columbus meets Ferdinand and Isabella at the Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos in Córdoba, Andalusia, and persuades them to support his Atlantic voyage intended to find a new route to the East IndiesAntonio de Nebrija publishes Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar text for the Castilian Spanish language, in Salamanca, which he introduces to the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, newly restored to power in Andalusia, as "a tool of empire"The Pentateuch is first printedFerdinand and Isabella sign the Alhambra Decree, expelling all Jews from Spain unless they convert to Roman CatholicismThe Capitulations of Santa Fe are signed between Christopher Columbus and the Crown of Castile, agreeing on arrangements for his forthcoming voyageCasimir IV Jagiellon, of the Jagiellon Royal House, dies, ending his reign over Poland and LithuaniaElizabeth Woodville, the last living Yorkist queen consort, dies in EnglandThe Jews are expelled from Spain; 40,000–200,000 leave. Sultan Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire, learning of this, dispatches the Ottoman Navy to bring the Jews safely to Ottoman lands, mainly to the cities of Thessaloniki (in modern-day Greece) and İzmir (in modern-day Turkey)The Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus sails with three ships from Palos de la Frontera, in the service of the Crown of Castile, on his first voyage across the Atlantic Ocean, intending to reach AsiaPope Alexander VI succeeds Pope Innocent VIII as the 214th pope, after the 1492 papal conclave, the first held in the Sistine ChapelChristopher Columbus sails from La Gomera in the Canary Islands, his final port of call before crossing the Atlantic Ocean for the first timeChristopher Columbus' expedition makes landfall in the Caribbean and lands on Guanahani, which he calls San Salvador, believing he has reached the East IndiesChristopher Columbus lands in CubaThe Peace of Étaples is signed between England and France, ending French support for Perkin Warbeck, the pretender to the English throne. All English-held territory in France (with the exception of Calais) is returned to FranceChristopher Columbus becomes the first European to set foot on the island of HispaniolaColumbus' ship Santa María runs aground off Cap-Haïtien, and is lostCharles VIII of France returns Cerdagne and Roussillon to Ferdinand of AragonMartín Alonso Pinzón returns to the city of Bayona in Spain from the voyage of discovery, sending the first notice about the discovery to the Catholic Monarchs (Christopher Columbus is delayed by a storm in the Azores)Christopher Columbus anchors in Lisbon and completes his February 15 letter on the first voyage, conveying the news of his discoveriesChristopher Columbus and Martín Alonso Pinzón return to Palos de la Frontera, the original port in Spain from where they started the first voyage of discoveryIn the papal bull Inter caetera, Pope Alexander VI decrees that all lands discovered 100 leagues (or further west) of the Azores are SpanishMaximilian I succeeds his father, Frederick III, as Holy Roman EmperorBattle of Krbava FieldChristopher Columbus leaves Cádiz on his second voyage of explorationPope Alexander VI issues the bull Dudum siquidem to the Catholic Monarchs, extending the grant of newly discovered lands he made them in Inter caeteraChristopher Columbus lands on the coast of the island of Borinquen, which he renames San Juan (modern-day Puerto Rico)The Cetinje Octoechos (Цетињски октоих, an Eastern Orthodox octoechos (liturgy), first tone), the first incunabulum written in the Serbian recension of Church Slavonic, and the first book printed in Cyrillic in Southeast Europe, is completed in CetinjeAlfonso II becomes King of NaplesChristopher Columbus first sights JamaicaThe infant Amda Seyon II succeeds his father Eskender as Emperor of EthiopiaFirst Battle of AcentejoTreaty of TordesillasAmda Seyon II is deposed and killed, and his uncle Na'od succeeds him as Emperor of EthiopiaThe Medici Bank is insolvent and the House of Medici is expelled from FlorenceFra Luca Pacioli's Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalità is published in Venice, containing the first printed account of algebra in the vernacular, and the first published description of the double-entry accounting systemSecond Battle of AcentejoKing Charles VIII of France enters Naples, to claim the city's throne. A few months later, he decides to return to France, and leaves Naples with most of his army, leaving a force under his cousin Gilbert, Count of Montpensier as viceroy. Syphilis is first definitely recorded in Europe during this invasion.[1] (perhaps from French forces who may have contacted Croats fleeing an Ottoman army in the east)A Spanish army under Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba lands in Calabria, with the purpose of ousting the French and restoring Ferdinand II of Naples to the throneBrother John Cor of Lindores Abbey pays duty on 8 bolls of malt to the Exchequer in Scotland to make aqua vitae for King James IV; the record in the Exchequer Rolls is the first written reference to Scotch whiskyBattle of SeminaraBattle of DealBattle of FornovoKing Manuel I of Portugal begins his reignAn explosion at Vyborg Castle deters the Russian forces, who have invaded Sweden through KareliaKing Henry VII of England signs the commercial treaty Intercursus Magnus with Venice, Florence, and the cities of the Hanseatic League and the NetherlandsHenry VII of England issues letters patent to Italian-born adventurer John Cabot and his sons, authorizing them to discover unknown landsChristopher Columbus leaves Hispaniola for Spain, ending his second visit to the Western Hemisphere. During his time here he has forcibly subjugated the island, enslaved the Taíno, and laid the basis for a system of land grants tied to the Taíno's enslavementJesus College, Cambridge, is foundedBartholomew Columbus, brother of Christopher Columbus, formally founds the city of Santo Domingo (first settled in March) on Hispaniola (in the modern-day Dominican Republic), making it the oldest permanent European settlement in the New WorldJoanna of Castile, second daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, heiress to Castile, marries the archduke Philip, heir through his mother to the Burgundian Netherlands, and through his father to the Holy Roman EmpireKing Manuel I of Portugal issues a decree ordering the expulsion of "heretics" from the countryBonfire of the vanitiesAmerigo Vespucci allegedly leaves Cádiz, for his first voyage to the New WorldPope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo SavonarolaJohn Cabot sets sail from Bristol, on the ship Matthew (principally owned by Richard Amerike), looking for new lands to the west (some sources give a May 2 date)The Catholic Monarchs issue the ordinance of Medina del Campo, creating a money system based on the copper maravedí, creating the peso of 34 maravedis. In the next three centuries, this system will dominate international payments. It will be used in almost all parts of the Americas and large parts of Asia. It is the basis for a number of modern currencies, including the U.S. dollarJohn Cabot lands in North America (near present day Bonavista, Newfoundland)Vasco da Gama's fleet departs from Lisbon, beginning his expedition to IndiaBattle of RotebroThe Treaty of Ayton establishes a seven-year peace between England and ScotlandLeaders of the Second Cornish Uprising surrender to the King at Taunton; the following day, Warbeck, having deserted his army, is captured at Beaulieu Abbey in HampshireSten Sture the Elder is forced to resign and end his 27-year term as Regent of Sweden. King John of Denmark and Norway is acknowledged by the estates as King of Sweden and formally elected on October 18, restoring the power of the Kalmar UnionKing Manuel I of Portugal proclaims an edict in which he demands that Jews convert to Christianity or leave the countrySheen Palace is destroyed by fire. Henry VII of England rebuilds it as Richmond PalaceVasco da Gama visits Quelimane and Mozambique, in southeastern AfricaPortuguese explorer Vasco Da Gama reaches Malindi, in modern-day KenyaPortuguese navigator Vasco da Gama arrives at Calicut (modern-day Kozhikode), India, becoming the first European to get there by sailing around Africa, thus discovering the maritime route to India. He finds a local Arab merchant who is able to interpret for himGirolamo Savonarola, ruler of Florence, is executed for criticizing the PopeChristopher Columbus sets out on his third voyage to the Western Hemisphere from Sanlúcar, SpainColumbus becomes the first European to visit the island of TrinidadColumbus discovers the mouth of the Orinoco1498 Meiō earthquakeLouis XII of France marries Anne of Brittany, in accordance with a law set by his predecessor, Charles VIII13-year-old Catherine of Aragon, the future first wife of Henry VIII of England, is married by proxy to his brother, 12-year-old Arthur, Prince of WalesBattle of DornachLake Maracaibo is discovered, by Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo VespucciVasco da Gama arrives at Lisbon, returning from India, and is received by King Manuel of PortugalTreaty of BaselThe Pont Notre-Dame in Paris, constructed under Charles VI of France, collapses into the SeineThe Catholicon is published in Tréguier (Brittany). This Breton–French–Latin dictionary had been written in 1464 by Jehan Lagadeuc. It is the first dictionary of either French or BretonPerkin Warbeck, pretender to the throne of England, is hanged for reportedly attempting to escape from the Tower of LondonEdward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, last male member of the House of York, is executed for reportedly attempting to escape from the Tower of LondonDuke Ludovico Sforza recaptures Milan, but is soon driven out again by the FrenchSpanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón reaches the northern coast of BrazilLudovico Sforza's Swiss mercenary army retakes the city of Milan from the French during the Second Italian WarBattle of HemmingstedtPedro Álvares Cabral, with a fleet of 13 ships, departs Portugal on a voyage to the New WorldThe Parliament of Bohemia adopts a new constitution that limits the power of King Vladislav II and subsequent Bohemian monarchs. Miroslav Buchvaldek, Československé dějiny v datech ("Czechoslovak History and Data") (Svoboda, 1987)The day after departing the Cape Verde Islands with the rest of Cabral's fleet, Vasco de Ataíde and his 150 crewmates die when their ship goes down in a stormPortuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral and his crew on 13 vessels become the first Europeans to discover Brazil, anchoring at Monte Pascoal and naming the country Vera Cruz. Cabral claims the land for the Kingdom of PortugalPêro Vaz de Caminha finishes writing his chronicle of the Portuguese discovery of Brazil while accompanying CabralCabral and his fleet depart from Brazil and sail eastward toward Africa, resuming their journey to IndiaRepresentatives of the English and Spanish royal families sign a treaty at Canterbury for the marriage of 13-year-old Arthur, Prince of Wales (son of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York) to 14-year-old Princess Catherine of Aragon. Arthur's marriage to Catherine takes place the next year, but Arthur dies five months later; she marries Arthur's younger brother Henry VIII in 1509The first guide to distilling of liquor is published, Liber de arte distillandi de simplicibus by Hieronymus BrunschwigTraveling eastward from Brazil, Cabral and his fleet run into a storm off of the coast of Africa near the Cape of Good Hope and lose four of their 13 ships.[12] Navigator Bartolomeu Dias is among the persons killedPope Alexander VI issues the papal bull Quamvis ad amplianda, calling on a Roman Catholic crusade against the Ottoman EmpirA combined force of troops from the Kingdom of France and from the Republic of Florence lay siege to the city of PisaSultan Abu Sa'id Qansuh of Egypt is overthrown and sent into exile. Al-Ashraf Abu al-Nasir Janbalat is crowned as the new Mamluk sultan, but reigns for less than six monthsBattle of the Vedrosha RiverThe Turkish fleet of Kemal Reis defeats the Venetians in the Second Battle of LepantoIn the Venetian Republic, the Ottoman Empire Turks capture Modon and Coron, the "two eyes of the Republic"Diogo Dias discovers an island which he names São Lourenço, since August 10 is the feast day of Saint Lawrence, a Roman Catholic martyr of the 3rd century. The massive island is later known as MadagascarFrancisco de Bobadilla, appointed to replace Admiral Christopher Columbus as Spanish Governor-General of the New World, arrives at Santo Domingo on the island of Hispanola. Bobadilla issues an order directing Christopher and Bartolomeo Columbus to appear before him at Santo DomingoGeorge the Bearded begins a reign of more than 38 years as Duke of Saxony at the Saxon capital of Emden, after the death of his father, Albert III, who had ruled 36 years.[19] George also becomes George II, Margrave of MeissenPedro Cabral's fleet of nine ships arrives in India, more than six months after departing from Portugal, and lands at the port of Calicut, which had been visited two years earlier by Vasco da GamaChristopher Columbus (Cristobal Colon) is placed under arrest, along with his two brothers, Bartolome and Diego, after appearing before Francisco de Bobadilla, who had replaced him as the Spanish Governor of the New World. ("El 15 de septiemre Bobadilla presenta sus credenciales a Colon... Colon habia ejectuado a varios espanoles cargo de gran peso contra el, asi que al fin Bobadilla resolvio enviarlos presos a Espana para que alla se les juzgase."— "On the 15th of September of 1500, Bobadilla presented hisBobadilla hears testimony from 22 witnesses and concludes that the Columbus brothers intended to overthrow him; he has them placed in manacles and chains for deportation to Spain. ("La pesquisa de Bobadilla contra Colon habia comenzado el 23-IX-1500."— "Bobadilla's investigation against Colon had begun on 23 September 1500.")Christopher Columbus and his brothers, arrested and in chains, are deported from Santo Domingo to SpainNasir-ud-Din Shah overthrows the government of his father, Ghiyath Shah, ruler of the Malwa Sultanate (located in much of what is now the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh) for the last 31 years. [24] Upon becoming the new Sultan, Nasir has his brother Ala-ud-Din executed, along with Ala-ud-din's children. Ghiyasuddin is poisoned the following FebruaryThe Treaty of GranadaEmperor Go-Kashiwabara accedes to the throne of Meiō era JapanChristopher Columbus and his brothers arrive in Spain at Seville "after one of the longest Atlantic crossings in the Columbian years" (six weeks) and released on their own recognizanceAll charges against the Columbus brothers for malfeasance in governing Hispanola are dismissed by King Ferdinand and Queen IsabellaThe last incunable is printed in VeniceCesar Borgia returns triumphantly to Rome, from RomagnaThe Duchy of Bavaria-Dachau, created in Germany in 1467 after Sigismund, Duke of Bavaria was granted his own state following his resignation from the throne of the Duchy of Bavaria-Munich, reverts to Bavaria-Munich's control upon Sigismund's deathMinkhaung II becomes the sole King of Burma upon the death of his son Thihathura II, with whom he was co-ruler for 15 years. Minkhaung's reign ends five weeks later when he dies on April 7Portuguese navigator João da Nova discovers Ascension Island.[1] It is definitely sighted and named on May 20, 1503 (Feast of the Ascension) by Afonso de AlbuquerqueShwenankyawshin Narapati begins an almost 26-year reign as King of Burma upon the death of his father, King Minkhaung IIThe Rebellion in the Alpujarras ends in southern Spain with a treaty of surrender of the last Muslim insurgents in the Alpujarra Mountains in Andalusia on the Mediterranean Sea.[3] The Muslims are given the choice of expulsion or conversion to ChristianityThe formal coronation of King Shwenankyawshin of Burma takes place at his capital in Inwa in the Mandalay Region on the 9th waning of Kason, 863 METhe Venetian Republic signs a treaty with the Kingdom of Hungary and Pope Alexander VI for troops to protect Venetian Dalmatia during the Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503)Harmonice Musices Odhecaton, the first printed collection of polyphonic music, is published by Ottaviano Petrucci in VeniceThe semi-independent city of Basel joins the Swiss Confederation as the eleventh canton of SwitzerlandAlexander Jagiellon, Grand Duke of Lithuania since 1492, becomes the new King of Poland upon the sudden death of his older brother, Jan I OlbrachtNicolau Coelho, part of Pedro Cabral's Portuguese expedition to India, returns home with one ship, having left ahead of CabralCesare Borgia's French troops storm and overtake the fortress at Capua in the Kingdom of Naples, overcoming the defense of Fabrizio Colonna in the occupation of the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon in southern ItalyPortuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral and his surviving crew return to Lisbon at the end of a 15-month expedition to India, with only seven of their original fleet of 13 ships. The cargo from India, however, returns a profit to the Portuguese crown of nine times its investmentThe Kingdom of Naples, led by King Federico I, surrenders to Cesare Borgia's French and Aragonese troopsCopernicus is formally installed as canon of Frauenberg CathedralHans, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden is deposed from the Swedish throne after fleeing the country following the victory of Swedish rebels at Örebro during the War of Deposition against King Hans. His wife, Christina of Saxony, is left behind at Stockholm as his regent of Sweden, to command a royal garrison at Tre Kronor ("Three Crowns"), the royal castle. Returning to Denmark, King Hans then organizes Danish troops to attempt to retake Sweden in the Dano-Swedish War (1501–1512)King Federico of Naples abdicates upon the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples by France, and France's King Louis XII becomes the nominal monarch as Luigi II, re di Napoli. King Louis appoints Louis d'Armagnac, Duke of Nemours as France's Viceroy of NaplesBattle of the Siritsa RiverOn complaints from Christopher Columbus, who had been replaced as Viceroy of the New World and arrested in 1500 by Francisco de Bobadilla, Queen Isabella of Spain orders that Bobadilla be recalled from Santo Domingo. Declining to allow Columbus to resume his brutal rule of the New World, the Queen appoints a friend, Nicolás de Ovando, as the new Viceroy. Although Bobadilla receives news of his firing several weeks later, he declines to step aside. Ovando will assemble a fleet of 30 ships and depart Spain onMaximilian I, Archduke of Austria, issues a decree making firearms safety tests mandatoryAleksandras Jogailaitis, Grand Duke of Lithuania, issues a decree requiring all Roman Catholic priests in the Duchy to become fluent in the Lithuanian languageQueen Isabella orders New World Governor Bobadilla to return the assets confiscated from Christopher Columbus and the two other Columbus brothersLeonardo Loredan is elected 75th doge of the Venetian Republic, taking office on October 13, and serves for almost 20 yearsSpanish princess Catherine of Aragon arrives in England and arrives at Plymouth. Although she will later become the wife of King Henry VIII in 1509, she initially arrives to marry Henry's older brother, Prince ArthurMaximilian of Austria and Louis XII of France sign the Treaty of Trente with Austria recognizing all French conquests in the northern territories of ItalyAmerigo Vespucci discovers and names Baía de Todos os Santos, in BrazilBattle of MstislavlPhilip and Joanna of Castile leave for SpainSten Sture the Elder is elected Regent of Sweden for the second time, becoming the Scandinavian nation's chief executive after King Hans of Denmark is deposed. No replacement of the monarchy is planned by the rebel Swedish noblesArthur, Prince of Wales, marries the Spanish princess Catherine of AragonA large army of the Grand Duchy of Moscow overruns Livonia during the Second Muscovite–Lithuanian WarGrand Duke Aleksandras Jogailaitis, Grand Duke of Lithuania becomes the King of Poland as Aleksander I JagiellończykIsmail I is enthroned as the first Shah of Iran, choosing Tabriz as his capital, founding the Safavid dynasty in northern Iran. He declares Shi'ism the official and compulsory religion, under penalty of deathPortuguese explorers, led by Gonçalo Coelho, sail into Guanabara Bay, Brazil, mistaking it for the mouth of a river, which they name Rio de JaneiroCommissioners from Scotland and England meet at Richmond Palace in London to finalize an agreement on the marriage between Scotland's King James IV to the daughter of England's King Henry VII, the princess Margaret Tudor, with a dowry of 35,000 Scottish Punnds and an agreement for a "treaty of perpetual peace".[The marriage will be completed by proxy on January 25, 1503Isabella I issues an edict outlawing Islam in the Crown of Castile, forcing virtually all her Muslim subjects to convert to ChristianityThe new Viceroy of the New World, Nicolás de Ovando, departs Spain with a fleet of 30 ships and orders to replace Viceroy Francisco de Bobadilla at Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola, and arrives in AprilChristopher Columbus begins preparation for his fourth and final voyage, with a goal of finding a westward passage in the New World to link the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian OceanArthur, Prince of Wales, the 15-year-old Duke of Cornwall and Earl of Chester, heir to the English throne as eldest son of King Henry VII, dies of a long illness less than five months marrying Catherine of Aragon. Arthur's 10-year-old brother, Henry, Duke of York, becomes the new heir to the throne and will later succeed his father as King Henry VIIIDmitry Ivanovich Vnuk, who had been the teenage co-ruler of the Grand Duchy of Moscow since 1498 with his grandfather Ivan III, is arrested along with his mother, Elena of Moldavia on suspicion of conspiracy.[5] Ivan designates his son (and Dmitry's uncle) Vasili Ivanovich as the new heir to the throne of MoscowThe formal coronation of Ivan the Great as Grand Prince of Moscow (encompassing most of the Russian people's territory) to reflect that he is the nation's sole ruler. Ivan had been co-ruler of Moscow from 1449 to 1462, ruler from 1462 to 1471 and 1490 to 1498, and co-ruler with his eldest son (Ivan the Young, 1471-1490) and his grandson, Dmitry Ivanovich from 1498 onwardPortuguese navigator João da Nova discovers the uninhabited island of Saint HelenaChristopher Columbus leaves Cadiz in Spain for his fourth and final trip to the New World, taking with him 147 men on his flagship, Capitana and the companion ships Gallega, Vizcaína, and Santiago de Palos.[7] He explores Central America, and discovers the Isthmus of Panama and the land now occupied by Honduras, and Costa Rica, and possibly the island of St. Lucia as wellColumbus and his men complete the rescue of stranded Portuguese soldiers in Morocco, then depart Asilah for a crossing of the Atlantic in 20 daysColumbus and his crew land on the island of Martinique and land at Le CarbetColumbus and his crew attempt to land at Santo Domingo in order to avoid being caught in a hurricane, despite being ordered not to return to Hispaniola. Nicolás de Ovando, the Spanish Viceroy, refuses to let Columbus sail into harbor and does not believe the warnings of the hurricane, which strikes two days laterA powerful hurricane sweeps through the Caribbean Sea near Puerto Rico and the island of Hispaniola, two days after Christopher Columbus was denied permission to land at Santo Domingo. An estimated 500 people are killed when the winds wreck 20 of the 31 ships brought from Spain by the new Viceroy, Nicolás de Ovando, including Ovando's flagship, El Dorado. Former Viceroy Francisco de Bobadilla and administrator Francisco Roldán are among the people killed. A ship provided by Bobadilla for Columbus to transpoAt Augsburg, Maximilian I, Germany's King of the Romans signs a treaty with representatives of King Henry VII of England, agreeing not to provide assistance to English rebelsThe first encounter between Europeans and the Maya people of Central America takes place when the Columbus brothers anchor at Guanaja, one of the Bay Islands off of the coast of what is now the nation of Honduras. An unfortunate group of Mayan traders happens to arrive at Guanaja at the same time, and its cargo is looted by Bartolomeo Columbus and his crewChristopher Columbus and his crew land at Puerto Castilla in what is now the mainland of the nation of Honduras, becoming the first Europeans to visitChristopher Columbus lands at Central America at what is now Costa RicaAnne of Foix-Candale is proclaimed Queen of Hungary upon her marriage to Vladislaus II, King of Hungary and Bohemia, at a ceremony in SzékesfehérvárColumbus and his crew arrive at Almirante Bay in PanamaIsmail I founds the Safavid dynasty and proclaims himself the Shah of Iran after defeating tribes of the Aq Qoyunlu confederationThe "Cantino planisphere", a precise copy for an Italian spy of Portugal's secret Padrão Real map of the New World, is acquired by Alberto Cantino, agent for Ercole I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, at a cost of 12 golden ducatsCesare Borgia kills Ramiro d'Orco; this incident is referenced in Machiavelli's The PrinceCesare Borgia (son of Pope Alexander VI) occupies Urbino, where he imprisons two potentially treacherous allies, Vitellozzo and Oliveretto; he executes them the next morningSeville in Castile is awarded exclusive rights to trade with the New WorldConstruction of the Henry VII Chapel at Westminster Abbey begins in the perpendicular style, the final stage of English Gothic artThe Challenge of BarlettaBattle of RuvoPortuguese explorer Vasco da Gama and sailors of his Portuguese India Armada become the first Europeans to sight the Seychelles islands as Thomé Lopes notes the discovery of what will later be called Silhouette IslandBattle of SeminaraBattle of CerignolaChristopher Columbus discovers the Cayman Islands, which he names Las Tortugas, after the numerous sea turtles thereNaples is captured by the SpanishAscension Island is first definitively sighted, by Portuguese admiral Afonso de AlbuquerqueThe coronation of Moctezuma II as ruler of the Aztec Empire takes place at the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, now part of Mexico CityJames IV of Scotland and Margaret Tudor are married as per the Treaty of Perpetual Peace by Pope Alexander VI, according to Papal bullMurad, the last Sultan of Aq Qoyunlu in what is now eastern Turkey fights the Safavid King of Persia, Ismail I in a battle near the city of Hamadan, and suffers 10,000 casualties, including his commander Güzel AhmadRepresentatives of King Henry VII of England and Queen Isabella of Spain sign a treaty for 12-year-old Henry, Prince of Wales to be married to Catherine of Aragon, widow of King Henry's son ArthurAfter his ships are damaged in a storm, Christopher Columbus and his 230 men are forced to beach at the island of Jamaica (at what is now Saint Ann Parish) and remain stranded there for the next six monthsThe book The Imitation of Christ by Thomas à Kempis is re-published in an English translationSaint Helena is first definitively sighted, by ships of Portuguese navigator Estêvão da Gama returning from the EastKing James IV of Scotland marries Margaret Tudor, daughter of King Henry VII of England, at Holyrood Abbey, Edinburgh, ScotlandPope Alexander VI dies after a reign of 11 years, and the largest gathering of cardinals up to that time— 21 from Italy, 11 from Spain and 7 from France— is called to Rome for a papal conclave, to start in SeptemberA previous treaty between Vladislaus II of Hungary and Bayezid II, which was finalized on June 11th, goes into effect. The treaty suppresses warfare along the Hungarian-Ottoman border. Stephen III of Moldavia is also included in this treaty, but it perserves his nation's independence on the condition Moldavia pays an annual tribute to the Ottoman EmpireFrancesco Todeschini Piccolomini, Archbishop of Siena, is elected as the new Pope after the voting cardinals cannot decide between Georges d'Amboise of France or Giuliano della Rovere of Italy. Piccolomini takes the name of Pope Pius III but will reign for only 26 daysFort Emmanuel is christened at Cochin after Afonso de Albuquerque obtained permission to be able to build it.[21] It is the first European fort in India, in addition to being the first Portuguese fortCardinal Giuliano della Rovere, Bishop of Ostia, is elected the 216th Roman Catholic Pontiff at the end of the year's second papal conclave and takes the papal name Pope Julius II.[22]: 210 Della Rovere had received 15 of 32 votes in the September voting for a plurality, but still short of a majority.[23]: 89 Julius II reigns for a little more than nine years until his death his death in 1513Pope Pius III dies less than four weeks after being elected, prompting the calling of the second papal conclave in as many monthsQueen Isabella I of Spain issues an edict prohibiting violence against indigenous peoples in the New WorldBernard Stewart, 4th Lord of Aubigny, commander of the defeated French forces and a prisoner of war since his April 21 defeat at the Battle of Seminara, is released from Castel Nuovo in Naples after a truce between France and SpainPope Julius II, formerly Giuliano della Rovere, adds four new people to the College of Cardinals, including two members of his family, Clemente della Rovere and Galeotto della Rovere.[22]: By the time of his death, Julius will have added 27 cardinals to the Roman Catholic Church, five of them from the della Rovere familyBattle of GariglianoFrench troops of King Louis XII surrender Gaeta to the Spanish, under Gonzalo Fernández de CórdobaAfter the death of Sten Sture the Elder on December 14 the year before, Svante Nilsson is elected the new Regent of SwedenTreaty of LyonKing Ferdinand V of Castile contracts with Juan de la Cosa to finance an independent expedition to the Pearl Islands and the Gulf of UrabáThe investiture of Prince Henry of England as Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester takes placeChristopher Columbus uses his knowledge of a lunar eclipse this night, to convince the indigenous Jamaican people to provide him with supplies (in Europe, the eclipse is in the early morning of March 1)King James IV of Scotland opens the Scottish Parliament for the first time since 1496The Eisho era begins in Japan during the reign of Emperor Go-Kashiwabara as the Bunki era endsMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor grants the Landshut inheritance to Albert IV during the War of the Succession of Landshut.[9] Maximilian would pronounce an imperial ban on Ruprecht on May 4, who Albert contested for the territoryLe Hien Tong, Emperor of Vietnam, dies after a reign of six years and is succeeded by his 15-year-old son Le Tuc TongAfter being marooned in Jamaica for six months, Christopher Columbus and his men are rescued by a Spanish shipBogdan III the One-Eyed becomes the new Prince of Moldavia upon the death of his father Stephen the GreatAt the age of 16, Lê Túc Tông becomes the new Emperor of Vietnam (Dai Viet) after the death of his father, Lê Hiến Tông, but serves for only six months before dyingPope Julius II issues an order reforming the official coinage of the Papal States, raising the silver content of the carlino coin to four grams.[14] In that the Pope was formerly Giuliano della Rovere, the new coin is called the giulio in his honor and features the coat of arms of the della Rovere familyBattle of KnockdoeMichelangelo's sculpture of David is unveilved in FlorenceQueen Isabella and King Ferdinand issue a Royal Warrant for the construction of Capilla Real, a Royal Chapel, to be built in GranadaTreaty of BloisIsabella I of Castile signs her will and testamentChristopher Columbus returns to Spain from his fourth voyage, during which he and his younger son, Ferdinand,[21] explored the coast of Central America from Belize to PanamaOn the death of Isabella I of Castile, Catholic Queen of Castile and Aragon, the Crown of Castile passes to her daughter JoannaLê Túc Tông dies after a reign of only six months as Emperor of VietnamNils Ravaldsson, the leader of the rebellion after Knut Alvsson's death, is attacked and his resistance crushed at Olsborg Castle in BåhuslenPope Julius II issues the papal bull Cum tam divino, decreeing a reform in the Roman Catholic Church to prohibit simony, the buying and selling of church offices ranging from bishops to the pope himselfUnder the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas, Pope Julius II sets the line of demarcation in the New World between Spain's and Portugal's territory as a line of longitude 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands.[3] The ambiguous definition of the measure of a league places the line between 42°30' W to 49°45' WDuring a visit to Windsor Castle as guests of King Henry VII of England, Philip the Handsome, Duke of Burgundy, plays a game of tennis against Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset in the first recorded use of tennis rackets. A year later, a chronicler notes that on the 7th of February, "the kynge of Castelle played w the Rackete and gave the marques xv"Appointed as the Viceroy of Portuguese India by King Manuel I of Portugal, Dom Francisco de Almeida departs from Portugal with an armada of 22 ships and 1,500 men, according to one estimate by João de BarrosKing Alexander Jagiellon of Poland agrees to support the Act of Nihil novi, prohibiting the king to issue laws without consent of the nobles represented by their parliament, the Sejm.[7] The official title is "Nihil novi nisi commune consensu", Latin for "Nothing new without common consentItalian explorer Sebastiano Caboto is granted a lifetime annuity of £10 per year by England's King Henry VII for services "in and aboute the fyndynge of the new founde landes" in North AmericaIn Tbilisi, David X becomes the new ruler of the Kingdom of Kartli in what is now the Republic of Georgia, upon the death of his father Constantine IIChrist's College, Cambridge, England, is re-founded, receiving its charter from Lady Margaret BeaufortPoland's Act of Nihil novi is granted by King Alexander I Jagiellon after being passed by the Sejm,[10] making Poland a Nobles' Democracy rather than an absolute monarchyZhu Houzhao, the 13-year-old son of the late Hongzhi Emperor of Ming Dynasty China, is enthroned as the Zhengde Emperor upon his father's deathThe future King Henry VIII of England repudiates his engagement to Catherine of Aragon, at his father's commandThe Kalmar BloodbathMartin Luther, aged 22, vows to become a monk in a moment of terror, as a result of a close lightning strike during a thunderstorm, near the village of StotternheimLuther enters the monastic life, at an Augustinian cloister in Erfurt called St. Augustine's MonasteryTravelling to India, a group of Portuguese explorers led by Francisco de Almeida, with 22 ships and 1,500 men, sack the city-state of Kilwa in East Africa, killing the Emir Abraham for failing to pay tribute. Almeida installs Mohammed Ankoni as the new rulerThe Portuguese State of India is founded in what is now the state of Kerala, after the Kingdom of Portugal takes over territory of the Bijapur sultanate at CalicutAlmeida's fleet destroys the East African city of MombassaFrancisco de Almeida arrives in the Anjediva Islands to begin construction on the first of four fortresses he needed to construct for his appointment as viceroyIn what is now Algeria, the Spanish Army under the command of Ramón de Cardona, captures the city of Mers-el-Kébir, a port of the Zayyanid Kingdom of Tlemcen, ruled by the Sultan Abu Abdallah VLucien Grimaldi takes over as the new Lord of Monaco after stabbing his brother Jean II to deathIn Portuguese India, the King of Cannanore gives permission to Francisco de Almeida to build the Fortaleza de Santo Ângelo in KannurVasili III succeeds Ivan III, as Grand Prince of Muscovy, comprising much of modern-day RussiaPortuguese explorer Lourenço de Almeida and his fleet encounter a storm and are driven to the island of Sri Lanka and travels to Colombo. The King of Kotte, Dharma Parakramabahu IX, allows Almeida to build a trade station and a Roman Catholic chapelThe Treaty of Salamanca is signed by Spain's King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Philip, Duke of Burgundy, agreeing that the two will serve as co-regents for Joanna the Mad, Queen of CastileÉrard de La Marck is elected prince-bishop of LiègeThe classical statue of Laocoön and His Sons is unearthed in Rome. On the recommendation of Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo, Pope Julius II purchases it, and places it on public display in the Vatican a month laterThe Swiss Guard arrives at the Vatican, to serve as permanent ceremonial and palace guards under Pope Julius IIHenry, Prince of Wales is made a Knight of the Golden Fleece by Maximilian I, Holy Roman EmperorIye Roy Mackay, Chief of Scotland's Clan Mackay, records his 1504 grant of six lands in what is now the County Sutherland, and starts a feud with Euphemia II, Countess of RossBattle of CannanoreKing Vladislaus II of Hungary and Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor sign a treaty to arrange the marriage of Vladislaus's daughter and Maximilian's sonPope Julius II lays the foundation stone of the new (current) St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, replacing the Old St. Peter's BasilicaMalus Intercursus, a treaty between King Henry VII of England and Duke Philip IV of Burgundy, is signedEmperor Moctezuma II of Mexico's Aztec Empire subdues a rebellion in Zozollan, east of Achiutia, then kills the prisoners of war as a sacrifice to the godsMahmud Shah II begins a 41-year reign as the Sultan of Kedah, a Muslim kingdom on the Malay Peninsula, on the death of his father, Adilin IThe Treaty of Villafáfila is signed between Austria and SpainPhilip the Fair, Duke of Burgundy, becomes the ruler of the Spanish Kingdom of Castile with his insane wife Joanna, but reigns for only two months before dying of typhoidBattle of KletskSigismund I the Old succeeds his brother as king of PolandIn Korea, Emperor Yonsangun, known for being a tyrant, is deposed in the Jungjong coup by his younger brother, who becomes King JungjongPhilip I, the first Spanish Habsburg King of Castile, dies suddenly from typhoidIn Córdoba, in the Spanish kingdom of Andalusia, members of the nobility and the general public revolt against the Spanish inquisitor Diego Rodriguez de Lucero and General Inquisitor Diego de Deza. The mob liberates the people incarcerated at the Córdoba prisonPope Julius II issues a bull excommunicating Giovanni II Bentivoglio from the Roman Catholic Church, who had dominated the Italian city state of BolognaCharles II, the six-year-old son of King Philip of Castile, inherits his father's title of Duke of Burgundy and is proclaimed "Lord of the Netherlands"Pope Julius II personally leads his troops into Bologna, retaking the city from the excommunicated tyrant Giovanni II BentivoglioSigismund I the Old (Zygmunt Jagiellon), younger brother of the late Alexander Jagiellon, becomes the King of Poland and (as Zygimantas II) the Grand Duke of Lithuania. He will reign for more than 40 years, dying in 1548 at the age of 81Sigismund I the Old is formally crowned King of Poland, at a ceremony in KrakówThe crew of the Portuguese ship Cirne, commanded by Diogo Fernandes Pereira, become the first Europeans to sight the Indian ocean island of Réunion, and name it Santa ApoloniaEleven months after the Lisbon Massacre, King Manuel I of Portugal issues an edict permitting the cristãos-novos ("New Christians", Portuguese Jews who had been forced to convert to Christianity) to freely emigrate from the kingdomItalian mercenary leader and former prince Cesare Borgia, later cited by Niccolò Machiavelli in The Prince as an example of "conquest by fortune",[4] completes his conquest of the Spanish city of Viana by driving out the defenders of the castle of the Count of Lerín, but makes the mistake of pursuing the fleeing enemy by himself. He is killed the next day by his captorsThe revolutionary council of the Republic of Genoa declares a war against French invadersAt Erfurt, German monk Martin Luther is ordained by the suffragan bishop Johann Bonemilch as a priest of the Catholic ChurchInstalled by the Revolutionary Council, Paolo da Novi becomes the first Doge of the Republic of Genoa in almost 19 years, after the office had been made vacant in 1488 by the conqueror Francesco Sforza.[9] He reigns for only 18 days before fleeing from office by French occupation forces on April 28, and the dogeship will remain vacant again for five yearsMartin Waldseemüller publishes his Cosmographiae Introductio ("Introduction to Universal Cosmography") and accompanying wall map, the first to show the Americas as a separate continent, naming them in honour of Amerigo Vespucci, his friend and idolIn Germany, the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire convenes at Konstanz and begins a series of reformsFrench troops retake the city of Genoa after a seven-day siege, defeating rebels who had taken control in July 1506Lorenzo Lotto's painting, the Santa Cristina al Tiverone Altarpiece, is unveiled at the Church of Santa Cristina in the Italian city of TrevisoIn Italy, King Louis XII of France departs from Genoa[7]: 85 and makes a triumphant entry into Milan on May 24Having been denied recognition by Pope Julius II as King of Naples, King Ferdinand II of Aragon departs from Naples to return to his home in SpainKing Ferdinand II of Aragon is welcomed by King Louis XII of France at the Italian city of Savona in a spectacular ceremony,[14] and the two monarchs begin a series of meetings on the division of the Italian kingdoms between France and SpainKing Ferdinand II of Aragon and King Louis XII of France complete their six-day summit at SavonaKing Ferdinand II of Aragon returns to Valencia to resume his rule of his Spanish kingdomAfonso de Albuquerque departs with six ships from the Yemeni island of Socotra to begin pillaging towns along the way to conquering the Persian Gulf port of HormuzA fleet of 11 ships from the Portuguese Navy's 8th Armada arrives in India and rescues the Portuguese defenders of the fort of Saint Angelo from the attack by the Kingdom of CannanoreKing James IV grants a patent for the first printing press in Scotland, to Walter Chapman and Andrew Myllar "to furnis and bring hame ane prent, with all stuff belangand tharto, and expert men to use the samyne, for imprenting within our Realme of the bukis of our Lawis, actis of parliament, croniclis, mess bukis, and portuus efter the use of our Realme, with addicions and legendis of Scottis sanctis, now gaderit to be ekit tharto, and al utheris bukis that salbe sene necessar, and to sel the sammyn for comA fleet commanded by Portugal's Afonso de Albuquerque arrives at the port of Hormuz on the Persian Gulf and sets about to conquer itThe Portuguese conquest of HormuzPortuguese Admiral Tristao da Cunha, with 12 ships, attacks a fleet of 13 Muslim merchant ships leaving the Indian port of Ponnani, and is confronted by the forces of Kutti Ali. The Portuguese win the battlePope Julius II issues a damnatio memoriae forcing the members of the House of Borgia out of control of the Papal StatesPrincess Mary of England, the 11-year-old daughter of King Henry VII, is betrothed to the 7-year-old Duke of BurgundyMaximilian, King of the Romans, requests permission to march to Rome through Venetian territory, but is denied and begins his ItalienzugMaximilian, King of the Romans, proclaims himself Holy Roman Emperor at the Italian city of Trento, after having been blocked by Venice from traveling to Rome to be crowned by Pope Julius IIMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, attacks the Republic of Venice and sack Ampezzo the next dayLouis V becomes the new prince elector of the Palatinate upon the death of his father, Philip.Battle of CadoreLa Cassaria by Ludovico Ariosto, the first Italian language comedy, is premiered at FerraraThe oldest annual foot race in Europe, the "Red Hose Race", is run for the first time, taking place in Scotland at Carnwath, LanarkshireWilhelm IV becomes the new Duke of Bavaria upon the death of his father, Albrecht IVWorking from the house of Piero di Braccio Martelli at Florence, Leonardo da Vinci begins writing his "collection without order" of his scientific discoveriesFerdinand II of Aragon appoints Florentine merchant Amerigo Vespucci to the post of Chief Navigator of SpainPrince Mihnea cel Rău, son of Vlad the Impaler, becomes the Voivode of Wallachia, with a palace at Târgoviște (now in Romania), upon the death of his cousin Radu IV the GreatItalian renaissance artist Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni of Florence signs a contract with the Vatican to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling, in return for a promised fee of 3,000 gold ducats (equivalent in 2023 to more than U.S. $600,000)The coronation of Prince Lajos as the designated successor to his father, King Vladislaus II of Hungary, takes place in SzékesfehérvárHoly Roman Emperor Maximilian I signs a humiliating armistice with the Republic of Venice, which for the moment stops any of his further plans for ItalyUpon the death of his father, King Oxlahuh-Tz'i, Hun-Iqʼ becomes one of the two kings of Guatemala's Kaqchikel Maya civilization. Hun-Iqʼ reigns jointly with King Kablahuh-Tihax until the latter's death on February 4The process of removing the former layers of paint on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is completed, and Michelangelo begins the next phase of marking the surface for paintingThe Emperor of Ethiopia, Na'od, dies in battle.[17] His son Lebna Dengel takes on the regnal name of Dawit II, and becomes the new emperor starting on August 11The Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico begins when Juan Ponce de León lands on the island.[19] Upon his arrival, Ponce is welcomed by Agüeybaná I, the island's leader a Cacique of the Taíno people.[20] The Spanish explorer soon settles and founds the city of Caparra, near what is now the town of GuaynaboEngland is left without a Roman Catholic Cardinal protector when Cardinal Galeotto Franciotti della Rovere dies suddenly.[22] England's King Henry VII dies seven months later before the monarchy and the Pope can agree on a new cardinal protector. The King's successor, Henry VIII, later abolishes the office entirely after Lorenzo Campeggio dies in the course of the English Reformation and the creation of the Church of EnglandAn inconclusive peace treaty is signed to end the third of the Muscovite–Lithuanian WarsKing Louis XII of France convenes court at the Parlement de Normandie building in RouenAt the age of 16, Prince Wolfgang of the House of Ascania becomes the new ruler of the German principality of Anhalt-Köthen, succeeding his father Waldemar VI. In 1521, he will meet Martin Luther[25] and, in 1525, will introduce the Reformation to his principality, making Anhalt-Köthen only the second nation (after the Electorate of Saxony) to officially adopt ProtestantismAstronomer Mikołaj Kopernik of Poland is granted benefits by Pope Julius II in order to perform his workThe League of Cambrai is formed as an alliance against the Republic of Venice, between Pope Julius II, Louis XII of France, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Ferdinand II of AragonMichelangelo begins painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling in the Holy See of Rome, on a commission by Pope Julius II (signed May 10)The Portuguese first arrive at the Seven Islands of Bombay and land at Mahim after capturing a barge of the Gujarat Sultanate in the Mahim CreekBattle of DiuMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, names Margaretha land guardians of the Habsburg NetherlandsThe Kingdom of France declares war on the Republic of VeniceThe French army under the command of Louis XII leaves Milan to invade Venetian territory. Part of the War of the League of Cambrai and the Italian WarsHenry VIII becomes King of England on the death of his father, Henry VIIPope Julius II places Venice under interdict and excommunication for refusing to cede part of Romagna to papal controlJuan Ponce de León obtains authorization to bring his family from Spain to his home in the Casa de Contratación in Caparra, Puerto RicoThe French army under the command of Louis XII crosses the Adda River at Cassano d'AddaThe Venetians, encamped around the town of Treviglio, move south towards the Po River in search of better positionsBattle of AgnadelloHenry VIII of England marries Catherine of AragonLuca Pacioli's De divina proportione, concerning the golden ratio, is published in Venice, with illustrations by Leonardo da VinciBrasenose College, Oxford, is founded by a lawyer, Sir Richard Sutton, of Prestbury, Cheshire, and the Bishop of Lincoln, William SmythKing Henry VIII of England and Queen Consort Catherine of Aragon are crownedVenetian forces retake the city of Padua from French forcesMaximillian I of the Holy Roman Empire along with French allies begins a siege of Padua that would last for months to retake the cityMaximillian I orders all Jews within the Holy Roman Empire to destroy all books opposing ChristianityPortuguese fidalgo Diogo Lopes de Sequeira becomes the first European to reach Malacca, having crossed the Gulf of BengalThe siege of Padua ends with Venetian victory, causing the retreat of HRE and French forces back to Tyrol and Milan. The Venetians soon recapture the city of VicenzaAfonso de Albuquerque becomes the Viceroy of Portuguese India,[18] replacing Francisco de Almeida, who departs five days later from Diu.[19] Almeida never makes it home, getting killed along with his 64 men in a battle on March 1 with the local Khoekhoe people at South Africa's Cape of Good HopeUriel von Gemmingen is assigned to secure others' opinions before continuing the Jewish book purge started on August 19thPrince Le Oanh is installed as the new Emperor of Vietnam by a coup d'etat against his cousin, Emperor Le Uy Muc, and is enthroned at the age of 14 as Emperor Le Tuong Duc. Uy Muc is granted his request to be allowed to commit suicide rather than to be executedAn 18-year-old Henry VIII of England jousts anonymously at Richmond, Surrey and draws applause, before revealing his identityThe Mary Rose ship is laid out.[4] The next year the ship is launched on July 29, 1511, and is afterwards towed to London to be fitted, and is finally completed in 1512.[5] In 1545, during the Battle of the Solent, she sank.[6]: 2 The reason for her sinking is disputed with contemporary accounts claiming the ship was heeled over or sank by French ships with gunfire, although modern historians believe it was sunk due to being unstableBattle of Salt RiverRebel leader Zhu Zhifan is defeated and captured by commander Qiu Yue, ending the Prince of Anhua rebellionThe Royal Dano-Norwegian Navy is founded when Henrich Krummedige is appointed chief captain of all those who are at seaSir Thomas More becomes undersheriff of the City of LondonMingyi Nyo declares independence from the Ava Kingdom in upper Burma, by establishing the Toungoo dynastyBattle of MervSt John's College, Cambridge, England, founded by Lady Margaret Beaufort, receives its charterCapture of MalaccaDuring the War of the League of Cambrai Pope Julius II proclaims a Holy League against French dominance in Italy. It is an alliance between the Papal States, the Swiss Confederation, Venice (which had been the opponent of the League of Cambrai) and Aragon. Emperor Maximilian and the English king Henry VIII join the League soon afterJames IV of Scotland's great ship, the Michael, is launched at Newhaven, Edinburgh; she is the largest ship afloat at this dateThe vessel Frol de la Mar, transporting Afonso de Albuquerque and the valuable treasure of the conquest of Malacca, sinks en route to GoaSack of BresciaBattle of RavennaThomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, leads an English expedition into France and burns the port city of BrestSelim I succeeds Bayezid II, as Sultan of the Ottoman EmpireSten Sture the Younger is elected new Regent of Sweden, deposing Eric TrolleBattle of Saint-MathieuMartin Luther becomes a doctor of theology (Doctor in Biblia)Martin Luther joins the theological faculty of the University of WittenbergThe ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michelangelo Buonarroti, is exhibited to the public for the first timeThe Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the conduct of settlers with regard to native Indians in the New WorldPope Leo X (layman Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici) succeeds Pope Julius II, as the 217th pope,[1] despite a strong challenge by Italian cardinal Raffaele Riario and his group of seniors, or cardinals that were elected by Sixtus IV and Innocent VIII, who were opposed to the relatively newer juniors that included MediciJuan Ponce de León becomes the first European definitely known to sight Florida,[3] mistaking it for another islandJuan Ponce de León and his expedition become the first Europeans known to visit Florida, landing somewhere on the east coastJuan Garrido (as part of Juan Ponce de León's expedition) becomes the first African known to visit North America,[5] landing somewhere on the east coast of FloridaBattle of NovaraChristian II becomes King of Denmark and NorwayBattle of DubicaBattle of the SpursThérouanne is given to Henry VIII of England after a treaty is concluded in the aftermath of the Battle of the SpursBattle of FloddenJohann Reuchlin is summoned for an inquisition trial, which was initiated by Jacob van Hoogstraaten.[13]: 152 The verdict of the trial was never revealed, as when it was going to be announced on October 12, the archbishop of Mainz ordered the court to go into recess on threat of resigning the court, and the trial never went on.[13]: 157 Eventually, in March 1514, an ecclesiastical court presided over by George, Bishop of Speyer cleared Reuchlin of any charges and ordered Hoogstraten to pay the cost of 111Vasco Núñez de Balboa, first sees what will become known as the Pacific Ocean from the Isthimus of Darién.[15] This moment is later referenced in a poem by John Keats called "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" with the line "silent upon a peak in Darién" although he mistakenly references Hernán Cortés as the one who saw the Pacific from DariénBattle of La MottaAppenzell becomes a member of the Swiss ConfederacyA great fire breaks out, in the Rialto of VeniceA huge exotic embassy sent by King Manuel I of Portugal to Pope Leo X arrives in Rome, including Hanno, an Indian elephantThe Poor Conrad peasant revolt against Ulrich, Duke of Württemberg begins in BeutelsbachThe earliest printed edition of Saxo Grammaticus' 12th century Scandinavian history Gesta Danorum, edited by Christiern Pedersen from an original found near Lund, is published as Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae, by Jodocus Badius in ParisHenry Grace à Dieu, at over 1,000 tons the largest warship in the world at this time, built at the new Woolwich Dockyard in England, is dedicatedKing Christian II is crowned King of Norway in Oslo. This coronation was the last in Norway for 304 years until King Charles III John was crowned king in 1818King Henry VIII of England concludes an independent peace treaty with France in the War of the League of Cambrai, negotiated by Thomas WolseyBattle of ChaldiranBattle of OrshaThomas Wolsey is appointed Archbishop of York in EnglandLouis XII of France marries Mary Tudor (sister of King Henry VIII of England) at Abbeville, as part of the English peace with FranceDeath of Louis XII of France and ascension of Francis, Dauphin of FranceFrancis I of France is crowned King of France in the Cathedral of ReimsMary Tudor, Queen of France, and Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, are officially married at Greenwich (near London)Battle of TurnadağManchester Grammar School is endowed by Hugh Oldham, the first free grammar school in EnglandThe First Congress of ViennaConquistador Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar founds Havana, CubaThomas Wolsey is invested as a CardinalThomas Wolsey is named Lord Chancellor of EnglandWith the death of Ferdinand II of Aragon, his grandson, Charles of Ghent, becomes King of Spain;[3] his mother Queen Joanna of Castile also succeeds as Queen of Aragon and co-monarch with Carlos, but remains confined at TordesillasDesiderius Erasmus publishes a new Greek edition of the New Testament, Novum Instrumentum omne, in BaselThe Venetian Ghetto is instituted in the Republic of VeniceThe Reinheitsgebot is instituted in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, regulating the purity of beer permissible for saleThe Treaty of Noyon is signed. Francis I of France recognizes Charles I of Spain's claim to Naples, and Charles recognizes Francis's claim to Milan. The treaty also promised Louise of France to CharlesKing Francis I of France and Pope Leo X sign the Concordat of Bologna, agreeing on the relationship between church and state in FranceBattle of Marj DābiqBattle of Yaunis KhanTreaty of BrusselsBattle of RidaniyaCairo is captured by the Ottoman Empire after a three day battle,[2] and the Mamluk Sultanate fallsBernal Díaz del Castillo, a chronicler who documents the conquest of Mexico, sets out with the Hernández de Córdoba expedition from Jaruco.[4] They arrive at Cape Catoche twenty-one days later, and are met with hostility by the nativesEvil May DayPortuguese merchant Fernão Pires de Andrade meets Ming Dynasty Chinese officials through an interpreter, at the Pearl River estuary and lands, at what is now in the jurisdiction of Hong Kong. Although the first European trade expeditions to China took place in 1513 and 1516 by Jorge Álvares and Rafael Perestrello, respectively, Andrade's mission is the first official diplomatic mission of a European power to China, commissioned by a ruler of Europe (Manuel I of Portugal)Martin Luther publishes his 95 Theses (posting them on the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church) This story is possibly apocryphalThe widowed Sigismund I the Old, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, marries Milanese noblewoman Bona Sforza in Wawel Cathedral and she is crowned as Queen consort of PolandConstruction of the Manchester Grammar School is completed in England.[5] The total cost of the project was £218 13s 5dThe Treaty of London temporarily ensures peace in Western EuropeUlrich Zwingli preaches for the first time, as people's priest of the Great Minister in ZürichHernán Cortés and his conquistadores land in MexicoHernán Cortés reaches San Juan de Ulúa; next day (Good Friday) he sets foot on the beach of modern-day VeracruzCharles I of Spain becomes Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (rules until 1556)Martin Luther joins the debate regarding papal authority, against Johann Eck at LeipzigMing Dynasty Chinese philosopher and general Wang Yangming, governor of Jiangxi, defeats Zhu Chenhao, ending the Prince of Ning rebellion. Wang has expressed the intention of using fo–lang–ji cannons in suppressing the rebellion, probably the earliest reference in China to the breech-loading Frankish culverinFerdinand Magellan departs from Spain with a fleet of five ships, to sail westbound to the Spice IslandsHernán Cortés and his men, accompanied by 3,000 Tlaxcalans, enter CholulaHernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlan, and the court of Aztec ruler MoctezumaKing Christian II of Denmark and Norway defeats the Swedes, at Lake Åsunden in Sweden. The Swedish regent Sten Sture the Younger is mortally wounded in the battle. He is rushed towards Stockholm, in order to lead the fight against the Danes from there, but dies from his wounds on February 3King Henry VIII of England and King Francis I of France meet at the famous Field of the Cloth of GoldPope Leo X issues the bull Exsurge Domine (Arise O Lord), threatening Martin Luther with excommunication, if he does not recant his position on indulgences and other Catholic doctrinesLa Noche TristeBattle of OtumbaChristian II makes his triumphant entry into Stockholm, which had surrendered to him a few days earlier. Sten Sture's widow Christina Gyllenstierna, who has led the fight after Sten's death, and all other persons in the resistance against the Danes, are granted amnesty and are pardoned for their involvement in the resistanceSuleiman I succeeds his father Selim I as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.[8] He is officially crowned on September 30The islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon are discovered by Portuguese explorer João Álvares Fagundes, off Newfoundland. He names them Islands of the 11,000 Virgins, in honour of Saint UrsulaCharles V is crowned King of Germany in AachenAfter navigating through the South American strait, three ships under the command of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan reach the Pacific Ocean,[15][16] becoming the first Europeans to sail from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific (the strait is later named the Strait of Magellan)Martin Luther burns a copy of The Book of Canon Law (see Canon Law), and his copy of the Papal bull Exsurge DominePope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther, in the papal bull Decet Romanum PontificemCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor, opens the Diet of Worms in Worms, GermanySuleiman the Magnificent suppresses a revolt by the ruler of Damascus, Janbirdi al-GhazaliNydala Abbey BloodbathFerdinand Magellan makes the first European contact with Guam,[5] most likely landing in TumonMartin Luther is summoned to appear before the Diet of WormsFerdinand Magellan reaches the Philippines, in eastern SamarThe First Mass in the Philippines is heldFerdinand Magellan arrives at CebuMartin Luther preaches an inflammatory sermon to students at Erfurt, while on his way to WormsBattle of VillalarMartin Luther leaves Worms and disappears for around a year[14] – he is rumored to be murdered, but is actually in hiding at the Wartburg castleBattle of MactanEdward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, is executed for treason in Tower HillBattle of PampelunaThe Diet of Worms ends when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor issues the Edict of Worms, declaring Martin Luther an outlaw and banning his literatureJiajing Emperor ascends the throne of the Ming dynastyBattle of NoáinSan Juan Bautista is founded as the new capital of the archipelago of Puerto RicoBelgrade is captured by the Ottoman army of Suleiman the MagnificentRevolt of the Comuneros is crushedSpanish–German–Papal forces under Prospero Colonna force French Marshal Odet de Lautrec to abandon MilanThe Zwickau prophets arrive in Wittenberg, disturbing the peace and spreading the idea of rejecting infant baptismPope Adrian VI (born Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens, Dedens or Dedel;[1] Hadrianus in Latin) succeeds Pope Leo X, as the 218th pope. The only Dutch pope, he will be the last non-Italian elected for more than 450 yearsSpanish conquistador Gil González Dávila sets out from the gulf of Panama to explore the Pacific coast of Central America. He explores Nicaragua and names Costa Rica when he finds copious quantities of gold in Pacific beachesBattle of BicoccaCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor visits King Henry VIII of England, and signs the Treaty of Windsor, pledging a joint invasion of France, bringing England into the Italian War of 1521–1526The Victoria (nao Vittoria), one of the surviving ships of the Magellan expedition, returns to Sanlúcar de Barrameda in Spain, under the command of Juan Sebastián Elcano, becoming the first ship to circumnavigate the worldMartin Luther's translation of the Bible's New Testament into Early New High German from Greek, Das newe Testament Deutzsch, is published in Germany, selling thousands in the first few weeksThe Ottomans finally break into Rhodes, but the Knights continue fierce resistance in the streetsSuleiman the Magnificent accepts the surrender of the surviving Knights in Rhodes, who are allowed to evacuate. They eventually re-settle on Malta, and become known as the Knights of MaltaChristian II is forced to abdicate as King of Denmark and Norway after the nobles of the herredag at Viborg have renounced their allegiance in favor of his uncle, Frederick, Duke of Holstein. Christian is exiled to the Netherlands in AprilConstruction of Fort Kastela by Portuguese invaders, on what is now the island of Ternate in Indonesia, is completed as Portugal claims the Spice Islands (now the Maluku Islands)Captain Antón Mayor formally claims for Spain what is now Nicaragua, after he arrives with Andrés Niño and other Spanish troops on the Central American coast at El RealejoIn Spain's Kingdom of Valencia, a rebellion by the Brotherhoods of Mallorca is suppressed after two years, as the rebels surrender their capital, Palma de Mallorca, to Spanish and German troopsFrederick I is provisionally declared as King of Denmark by Danish nobles at Viborg, although loyalists at Copenhagen refuse to recognize his claim to the throne. Christian II, 1481-1559, regent 1513-1523Periods
Night of the Long Knives in GermanyThe 6th Nuremberg Rally is staged by the German Nazi PartyThe Chinese Civil War2nd Italo-Ethiopian WarThe IV Olympic Winter GamesThe 1936–1939 Arab revolt in PalestineThe Spanish Civil WarThe 1936 Summer OlympicsThe Battle/Rape of NankingThe Slovak–Hungarian WarWorld War 2Invasion of PolandZambrów massacreThe Winter WarOperation WeserübungQueen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands and her government are evacuated to London, using the British destroyer HMS HerewardThe Battle of FranceThe Dunkirk evacuationOccupation of the Baltic statesOperation AerialThe Italian conquest of British SomalilandBattle of BritainAnglo-Iraqi WarThe Ustaše massacreThe Battle of CreteThe Bombing of ChongqingOperation BarbarossaJune Uprising in LithuaniaThe Continuation WarThe Iași pogrom takes place, killing "at least 13,266" Romanian JewsThe Uprising in SerbiaThe Uprising in MontenegroThe Glina massacresThe Anglo-Soviet invasion of IranSoviet evacuation of TallinnSiege of LeningradThe Nikolaev massacre takes place in Mykolaiv (Soviet Union)The Drama UprisingThe Moscow ConferenceBabi Yar massacreThe BlitzThe Italian invasion of EgyptWWII: SS City of Benares is torpedoed by German submarine U-48 in the Atlantic, with the loss of 248 of the 406 on board, including child evacuees bound for CanadaThe Balkans CampaignThe Greco-Italian WarBattle of Elaia–KalamasJilava MassacreOperation CompassThe Second Great Fire of LondonBattle of KerenThree Nights' Blitz over Swansea, South WalesBattle of Cape MatapanThe Battle of MoscowOperation CrusaderThe Siege of TobrukThe Battle of Hong KongBattle of JitraThe Battle of BataanThe Malayan campaignOperation CerberusBattle of SingaporeBattle of Sittang BridgeFirst mass transport of Jews to Auschwitz concentration campBattle of Christmas IslandTulagi is invaded by Japanese forces in the British Solomon Islands of the South Pacific, as part of Operation MoBattle of MadagascarThe Battle of the Kerch PeninsulaThe Battle of the Coral SeaSecond Battle of KharkovBattle of Bir Hakeim:Bombing of CologneAttack on Sydney HarbourBattle of MidwayCase BlueFirst Battle of El AlameinThe Battle of the AtlanticThe Guadalcanal campaignBattle of StalingradBattle of the Eastern SolomonsBattle of Milne BaySarny MassacreBattle of Alam el HalfaBattle of Cape EsperanceBattle for Henderson FieldSecond Battle of El AlameinBattle of the Santa Cruz IslandsOperation TorchOperation UranusOperation HarlingOperation FranktonOperation Winter StormBattle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea HorseCasablanca ConferenceOperation IskraBattle of Buna–GonaThe Marseille RoundupBattle of Rennell IslandBattle of WauThe Tunisian campaignBattle of Sidi Bou ZidBattle of Kasserine PassKoriukivka massacreBattle of the Bismarck SeaBattle of FardykambosThe Warsaw Ghetto UprisingChangjiao massacreOperation ChastiseBattle of PortaBattle of KurskThe Allied Invasion of SicilyBattle of Vella GulfOperation HydraThe Allied Invasion of ItalyMassacre of the Acqui DivisionLanding at Scarlet Beach on the Huon Peninsula of New Guinea by Allied forcesThe Four days of NaplesBattle of OrtonaThe Battle of the Treasury IslandsBattle of Empress Augusta Bay off Bougainville IslandOperation Harvest FestivalBattle of TarawaCairo ConferenceThe Battle of AraweOperation TempestThe Battle of Monte CassinoThe Battle of AnzioThe Battle of CisternaBattle of KwajaleinThe Battle of EniwetokThe Admiralty Islands campaignOperation Ichi-GoHungarian Jews are deported to Auschwitz, and other Nazi concentration campsOperation OverlordOperation PerchThe Vyborg–Petrozavodsk OffensiveBattle of SaipanOperation BagrationThe Battle of KohimaThe Battle of Tali-IhantalaThe Battle of ImphalDortan massacreOperation GoodwoodBattle of GuamOperation SpringThe Battle of Tannenberg LineThe Warsaw UprisingThe Wola massacreOperation DragoonThe Liberation of Paris beginsOperation TractableThe Tartu Offensive OperationThe Battle of MeligalasThe Battle of PeleliuOperation Market GardenThe Battle of San MarinoThe Battle of Hürtgen ForestThe Battle of DebrecenThe Belgrade OffensiveThe Battle of LeyteOperation PheasantThe Battle of the ScheldtNaval Battle of Leyte Gulf in the PhilippinesThe Slovak National UprisingThe Slovak National UprisingOperation QueenThe Moonsund Landing OperationThe Battle of MindoroThe Battle of the BulgeThe Allied advance from Paris to the RhineThe Vistula–Oder OffensiveThe East Prussian OffensiveThe Siege of BudapestAt the Grünhagen railroad station, located in East Prussia at this date, two trains, heading for Elbing, collide. At dawn the station is reached by Soviet Army infantry and tanks which destroy the station, killing from 140 to 150 peopleThe Battle of Hill 170Battle of ManilaPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin hold the Yalta ConferenceOperation KitaThe Bombing of DresdenBattle of Iwo JimaThe Battle of Monte CastelloOperation LumberjackBombing of TokyoThe Upper Silesian OffensiveThe Battle of the Transdanubian HillsThe Battle of OkinawaThe Battle of Slater's KnollThe Battle of KönigsbergRazing of FriesoytheThe Battle of BerlinThe Battle of the Oder–NeisseThe Battle of the Seelow HeightsThe last major strategic bombing raid by RAF Bomber Command, the destruction of the oil refinery at Tønsberg in southern Norway, is carried out by 107 Avro LancastersThe Battle of BautzenThe Prague UprisingThe Battle of PoljanaThe Schio massacrePotsdam ConferenceThe Soviet–Japanese WarSoviet troops complete the occupation of SakhalinThe Indonesian National RevolutionChinese Civil War Phase 2Operation BackfireBattle of SurabayaThe Iran Crisis of 19461946 Bihar riotsFirst Indochina WarThe Cold WarIndo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948The Costa Rican Civil War1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine1948 Arab–Israeli WarThe Malayan EmergencyThe Berlin BlockadeThe Greek Civil WarBattle of GuningtouKorean WarBattle of TaejonThe Battle of the Pusan PerimeterBattle of InchonGoyang Geumjeong Cave massacreThe Battle of the Ch'ongch'on RiverThe Third Battle of SeoulOperation RipperFirst Battle of Maryang-sanCatalina affairOperation Upshot–KnotholePlzeň uprising of 1953The East German uprising of 1953The Cuban Revolution1953 Iranian coup d'étatBattle of Dien Bien Phu1954 Geneva Conference1954 Guatemalan coup d'étatAlgerian War of IndependenceBattle of Yijiangshan IslandsFirst Sudanese Civil WarThe Vietnam WarThe Montgomery Bus BoycottFinnish troops reoccupy Porkkala, after Soviet troops vacate its military base. Civilians can return February 4The 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union is held in MoscowThe March 1956 demonstrationsPoznań 1956 protestsThe Suez CrisisThe Hungarian Revolution of 1956Little Rock CrisisThe Ifni WarThe Civil Rights MovementThe Second Taiwan Strait CrisisOperation ArgusFirst Cod WarThe Mexico–Guatemala conflictThe 1959 Tibetan uprisingUSSR Premier Nikita Khrushchev and his wife tour the United States, at the invitation of U.S. President Dwight David EisenhowerThe Rwandan RevolutionThe Greensboro Sit-InsOperation SandblastThe Congo CrisisThe 1960 Ethiopian coup attemptThe Bay of Pigs invasionFreedom RidersThe Eritrean War of IndependenceThe Annexation of GoaThe Century 21 ExpositionThe North Yemen Civil WarThe Cuban Missile CrisisThe Sino-Indian WarThe Indonesia–Malaysia confrontationThe Birmingham Campaign1963 South Vietnamese CoupThe Frankfurt Auschwitz trialsThe 1964 Gabonese Coup d'étatThe 1964 Brazilian Coup d'étatInternal Resistance to ApartheidThe Mozambican War of IndependenceOperation Rolling ThunderThe Selma to Montgomery MarchesThe Indo-Pakistani War of 1965The Dominican Civil WarOpposition to United States Involvement in the Vietnam WarThe Watts RiotsGhetto riots in the United States (1964–1969)Operation StarliteThe Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66Operation HumpBattle of Ia DrangThe 1966 Nigerian Coup d'étatThe 1966 Syrian coup d'étatThe Buddhist Uprising of 1966The White House Conference on Civil RightsThe March Against FearOperation Deckhouse FiveOperation Cedar FallsThe Cambodian Civil WarSix-Day WarThe Jordanian campaign of 1967The Long, Hot Summer of 1967The Nigerian Civil WarOperation SwiftBattle of Dak ToThe Prague SpringBattle of Khe SanhThe First Battle of SaigonBattle of Lima Site 85The Laotian Civil WarStudents at Howard University in Washington, D.C., signal a new era of militant student activism on college campuses in the U.S. Students stage rallies, protests and a 5-day sit-in, laying siege to the administration building, shutting down the university in protest over its ROTC program and the Vietnam War, and demanding a more Afrocentric curriculumThe King Assassination RiotsColumbia University Protests of 1968May 68The Communist insurgency in MalaysiaThe Warsaw Pact invasion of CzechoslovakiaPolice clash with anti-war protesters in Chicago outside the 1968 Democratic National Convention, which nominates Hubert Humphrey for U.S. President and Edmund Muskie for Vice President. The riots and subsequent trials are an essential part of the activism of the Youth International PartyThe Tet OffensiveOperation Commando HuntOperation MenuThe Battle of Hamburger Hill1969 International Meeting of Communist and Workers PartiesThe Stonewall riotsThe Football WarThe Sino-Soviet border conflictThe Arab Cold WarThe War of AttritionThe Dhofar RebellionBlack SeptemberOperation Jefferson GlennOperation TailwindThe October CrisisOperation SearchlightThe Bangladesh Liberation WarThe 1971 May Day ProtestsThe War on DrugsThe Space RaceOperation Sourisak Montry VIIIThe Indo-Pakistani War of 1971The Battle of SylhetThe Asama-Sansō incidentU.S. President Richard M. Nixon makes an unprecedented 8-day visit to the People's Republic of China and meets with Mao ZedongThe Easter OffensiveOperation LinebackerOperation Custom TailorSecond Cod WarThe Munich massacreThe 1973 Israeli raid on LebanonThe Yom Kippur WarThe Watergate ScandalThe Turkish invasion of CyprusThe Ethiopian Civil WarThe flight of Soyuz 17 with the crew of Georgy Grechko and Aleksei Gubarev) aboard the Salyut 4 space stationThe Lebanese Civil WarThe 1975 Chadian Coup d'étatThe Chadian Civil War of 1965–1979The East Sea CampaignThe Mayaguez incidentOperation SavannahThe Angolan Civil WarThird Cod WarThe Western Sahara WarThe 1977 Hanafi SiegeThe Libyan–Egyptian WarThe German AutumnThe Ogaden WarThe Somali RebellionThe Saur RevolutionThe South African Border WarCamp David AccordsThe Cambodian–Vietnamese WarThe Cambodian GenocideThe Uganda–Tanzania WarThe Iranian RevolutionThe Iranian army withdraws to its barracks leaving power in the hands of Ayatollah Khomeini, ending the Pahlavi dynastyThe Sino-Vietnamese WarThe Iran Hostage CrisisThe Soviet–Afghan WarThe Dominican Republic Embassy SiegeThe Spring Rhythms: Tbilisi-80The Mariel boatliftOperation Eagle Claw,The Iranian Embassy SiegeThe Salvadoran Civil WarThe Gwangju Democratization StruggleThe Iran–Iraq WarThe NASA space probe Voyager I makes its closest approach to Saturn, when it flies within 77,000 miles (124,000 km) of the planet's cloud-tops and sends the first high resolution images of the world back to scientists on EarthThe 1981 Spanish Coup d'état Attempt1981 Polish hunger demonstrationsSiege of AbadanOperation Samen-ol-A'emehIn Geneva, representatives from the United States and the Soviet Union attempt to negotiate intermediate-range nuclear weapon reductions in Europe; the meetings end inconclusivelyMartial Law in PolandThe Falklands WarOperation AlgecirasThe Battle of Goose GreenThe 1982 Lebanon WarThe Sabra and Shatila MassacreThe Sri Lankan Civil WarBlack JulyThe United States Invasion of GrenadaSTS-41-BThe Siachen ConflictOperation Blue StarSTS-41-DSTS-41-GThe Bhopal disasterSTS-51-GThe Iran–Contra AffairThe Colombian ConflictThe South Yemeni Civil WarThe Chadian–Libyan ConflictThe People Power RevolutionThe Somali Civil WarRonald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev meet in Reykjavík, Iceland, to continue discussions about scaling back their intermediate missile arsenals in Europe, which end in failureThe June Democratic StruggleOperation Earnest WillThe Battle for Hill 3234The Nagorno-Karabakh WarThe Sumgait pogromThe Battle of AfabetSoviet Withdrawal from AfghanistanSpontaneous 100,000 strong mass night-singing demonstrations in Estonian SSR eventually give name to the Singing RevolutionSTS-26The 1989 Attack on La Tablada barracksThe 1989 Paraguayan Coup d'étatThe Revolutions of 1989The Socialist Republic of Serbia passes constitutional changes revoking the autonomy of the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo, triggering six days of rioting by the Albanian majority, during which at least 29 people are killedThe April 9 TragedyThe Mauritania–Senegal Border WarThe Tiananmen Square ProtestsSTS-28The Velvet Revolution1989 Philippine Coup AttemptThe Malta SummitThe Romanian RevolutionThe United States Invasion of PanamaThe Baku PogromBlack January1990 Dushanbe riotsIn the Czechoslovakian parliamentary election, Czechoslovakia's first free election since 1946, the Civic Forum wins the most seats but fails to secure a majorityThe Gulf WarThe Invasion of KuwaitThe First Liberian Civil WarThe United Nations World Summit for Children draws more than 70 world leaders to United Nations HeadquartersSTS-38The leaders of Canada, the United States, and 32 European states meet in Paris to formally mark the end of the Cold WarThe 1991–1992 South Ossetian WarThe January KillingsThe BarricadesOperation Desert StormThe Bougainville Civil WarThe Battle of KhafjiThe Kuwaiti Oil FiresThe 1991 Protests in BelgradeThe Sierra Leone Civil WarU.N. inspection teams attempt to intercept Iraqi vehicles carrying nuclear related equipment. Iraqi soldiers fire warning shots in the air to prevent inspectors from approaching the vehiclesThe Yugoslav WarsThe Ten-Day WarThe 1991 Soviet Coup d'état AttemptThe Croatian War of IndependenceThe Siege of DubrovnikThe Battle of VukovarThe 1991–92 Georgian Coup d'étatThe Georgian Civil WarThe Venezuelan Feburary Coup Attempt of 1992The Algerian Civil WarSTS-45The Bosnian WarAfghan Civil WarU.N. peacekeepers withdraw from SarajevoBlack MayIraq refuses a U.N. inspection team access to the Iraqi Ministry of Agriculture. UNSCOM claims that it has reliable information that the site contains archives related to illegal weapons activities. U.N. inspectors stage a 17-day "sit-in" outside of the building, but leave when their safety is threatened by Iraqi soldiersThe Transnistria WarMillions of black South Africans participate in a general strike called by the African National Congress to protest the lack of progress in negotiations with the government of State President of South Africa F. W. de KlerkThe War in AbkhaziaThe Mozambican Civil WarOperation Gothic SerpentThe Battle of MogadishuThe UNMIH is prevented from entering Haiti by its military-led regime. On October 18, United Nations economic sanctions (abolished in August) are reinstated. U.S. President Bill Clinton sends 6 American warships to enforce them1993 Burundian Coup d'état AttemptThe Burundian Civil WarThe Battle of PoonerynThe North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) passes the legislative houses in the United States, Canada and MexicoSTS-61Soyuz TM-18The Siege of SarajevoThe NATO intervention in Bosnia and HerzegovinaOperation Deny FlightThe Rwandan GenocideThe Rwandan Civil WarCeasefire negotiations for the Yugoslav War begin in Geneva; they agree to a one-month cessation of hostilities (which does not last more than a few days)The First Yemeni Civil WarSoyuz TM-21The First Chechen WarThe Tajikistani Civil WarThe East Prigorodny ConflictThe Samashki MassacreSTS-71The Siege of SrebrenicaThe Srebrenica MassacreThe Third Taiwan Strait CrisisOperation StormOperation Deliberate ForceThe Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing with over 4,750 delegates from 181 countries in attendanceSerious fighting breaks out between Russian soldiers and rebel fighters in ChechnyaSouth Lebanon ConflictOperation Grapes of WrathThe Czech Republic's first general election ends inconclusively. Prime Minister Václav Klaus and his incumbent Civic Democratic Party emerge as the winners, but are unable to form a majority government. President Václav Havel refuses to invite Klaus to form a coalitionThe 27 July IncidentSTS-80The Guatemalan Civil WarSTS-82The Thalit MassacreThe Haouch Khemisti MassacreThe Japanese Embassy Hostage CrisisSouhane MassacreThe Beni Messous MassacreThe Guelb El-Kebir MassacreThe Sid El-Antri MassacreAttacks on Likošane and ĆirezThe Kosovo WarThe May 1998 riots of IndonesiaThe Guinea-Bissau Civil WarSTS-95The NATO Bombing of YugoslaviaThe War of DagestanThe Kargil WarThe Second Chechen WarBattle of GroznyThe Millennium SummitOverthrow of Slobodan MiloševićThe Al-Qaeda insurgency in YemenSoyuz TM-31The Second EDSA RevolutionThe Second IntifadaThe 2001 Anthrax AttacksThe War on TerrorThe War in AfghanistanThe December 2001 CrisisOperation "Defensive ShieldThe Siege of the Church of the Nativity in BethlehemSoyuz TM-34The First Ivorian Civil WarSTS-107The War in DarfurThe Iraq WarThe 2003 invasion of IraqThe Battle of BaghdadThe Second Congo WarThe Second Liberian Civil WarThe Revolution of RosesThe 2004 Haitian Coup d'étatThe Orange RevolutionThe Tulip RevolutionPeace Mission 2005Chadian Civil WarOperation Summer RainsThe Iran–Israel Proxy ConflictThe Gaza–Israel ConflictThe 2006 Lebanon WarThe Fijian Coup d'état of December 2006The Mexican Drug WarThe Somalia WarThe Bronze NightThe 2007–08 Kenyan CrisisFinancial Crisis of 2007–2008The 2008 Andean Diplomatic CrisisThe 2008 Tibetan UnrestThe Russo-Georgian WarThe 2008 Mumbai AttacksThe Gaza War2009 Icelandic Financial Crisis ProtestsThe 2009 Swine Flu PandemicThe Bangladesh Rifles RevoltThe 2009 Malagasy Political CrisisSpace Shuttle Atlantis is launched to refurbish the Hubble Space Telescope on May 11, landing at Edwards Air Force Base May 242009 Iranian Presidential Election ProtestsThe Boko Haram InsurgencyThe Kyrgyz Revolution of 2010The 2010 Thai Political ProtestsThe 2010 South Kyrgyzstan RiotsThe Tunisian RevolutionThe Arab SpringThe Egyptian Revolution of 2011The First Libyan Civil WarThe Civil Uprising Phase of the Syrian Civil WarThe Syrian Civil WarThe Bahraini Uprising of 2011The 2010–11 Ivorian CrisisThe Second Ivorian Civil War2011 East Africa DroughtThe Battle of TripoliThe Second Gulf of Sidra OffensiveThe Battle of SirteThe Withdrawal of U.S. Military ForcesThe Iraqi InsurgencyThe 2012–2015 Unrest in RomaniaThe 2012 Romanian ProtestsThe 2012 Malian Coup d'étatThe Insurgency in the MaghrebThe Mali WarShenzhou 9Reactions to Innocence of MuslimsOperation Pillar of DefenseThe In Amenas Hostage CrisisCentral African Republic Civil WarThe 2012–13 Egyptian ProtestsPost-coup Unrest in EgyptThe Siege of Eastern GhoutaThe South Sudanese Civil WarThe Western African Ebola Virus EpidemicEuromaidanThe Ukrainian RevolutionAnnexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation2014 Pro-Russian Unrest in UkraineThe 2013–2014 Thai Political CrisisThe War in IraqThe Northern Iraq OffensiveInternational Military Intervention against ISILOperation Protective EdgeAmerican-led intervention in IraqOperation Inherent ResolveThe American-led Intervention in the Syrian Civil WarUmbrella RevolutionThe Burkinabé UprisingThe 2015 Baga MassacreThe Houthi insurgency in YemenSeptember 21 RevolutionThe Battle of Sana'aThe War in Donbass2015 Copenhagen ShootingsThe Yemeni Civil WarThe Saudi-led Intervention in YemenThe Iran–Saudi Arabia Proxy Conflict,ISIL claim responsibility for three attacks around the world during RamadanThe Kobanî MassacreTurkish Involvement in the Syrian Civil WarThe Russian Military Intervention in the Syrian Civil WarThe Battle of KunduzThe Turkey–ISIL ConflictNovember 2015 Paris AttacksThe 2016 Attack on the Saudi Diplomatic Missions in Iran2016 Ouagadougou Attacks2015–2016 Zika Virus EpidemicThe Four-Day War2016 Turkish Coup d'état AttemptThe 2016–Present Purges in TurkeyThe Protests against Rodrigo DuterteThe Venezuelan CrisisThe Withdrawal of U.S. troops from AfghanistanProtests against Donald TrumpThe Women's MarchThe Unite the Right RallyOperation Wrath of EuphratesThe Battle of RaqqaThe Rojava-Islamist ConflictThe Rohingya GenocideThe 2017 Iraqi–Kurdish ConflictThe United States Federal Government Shutdown of January 2018Operation Damascus SteelDouma Chemical AttackThe 2018–2020 Nicaraguan ProtestsThe Kivu Ebola EpidemicProtests against Emmanuel MacronThe Yellow Vests MovementFrance experiences its worst civil unrest since the protests of 1968 due to the yellow vests movement. Protests in Paris morph into riots, with hundreds of people injured and thousands arrested; over 100 cars are burned, the Arc de Triomphe is vandalized and numerous other tourist sites are closed, both in the capital and elsewhere in the countryThe United States Federal Government Shutdown of 2018–2019The 2016–2017 Zimbabwe Protests2017 Zimbabwean Coup d'étatThe Sinai Terror AttacksThe Kurdish–Turkish ConflictOperation Olive BranchVenezuelan Presidential Crisis2018–2019 Haitian Protests2019 India–Pakistan Border SkirmishesThe 2019 Balakot AirstrikeThe 2019 North Korea–United States summit is held in Hanoi, Vietnam. It is the second summit between U.S. President Donald Trump and the North Korean Chairman Kim Jong-unThe Battle of Baghuz FawqaniThe 2018–2020 Arab ProtestsThe 2019–20 Algerian ProtestsThe Second Libyan Civil War2019–20 Western Libya CampaignThe Sudanese RevolutionGaza–Israel ClashesThe 2019 Northwestern Syria OffensiveThe 2019–2020 Persian Gulf CrisisU.S. President Donald Trump makes a state visit to the U.K., meeting with Queen Elizabeth II and outgoing Prime Minister Theresa May. It is the first official state visit to the U.K. by a sitting U.S. president since 2011. Trump also attends D-Day commemorative ceremoniesChinese President Xi Jinping makes a state visit to Russia, where he also attends the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum2019–20 Hong Kong ProtestsChinese President Xi Jinping makes a state visit to North Korea. It is his first visit to the country as president and the first visit to North Korea by a Chinese leader since Hu Jintao's visit 14 years priorThe Papua ConflictThe 2019 Papua Protests2 and 5 September 2019 Kabul BombingsThe September 2019 Climate StrikesThe 2015–2018 Iraqi ProtestsThe 2019 Ecuadorian ProtestsOperation Peace Spring2019–20 Chilean ProtestsThe 2019–20 Lebanese ProtestsThe COVID‑19 PandemicThe 2019–20 Attack on the U.S. EmbassyThe Taiping RebellionThe Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All NationsThe Bombardment of SaléThe Revolution of 1851The Platine WarThe Second Anglo-Burmese WarThe Great Industrial ExhibitionThe Crimean WarThe Ottoman Empire begins war with RussiaThe Nepalese–Tibetan WarBleeding KansasThe Wakarusa WarThe Filibuster WarThe Pottawatomie MassacreThe Second Opium WarThe Anglo–Persian WarThe Indian Rebellion of 1857The Siege of LucknowThe War of ReformThe Battle of GrahovacThe Cochinchina CampaignParaguay ExpeditionThe Second Italian War of IndependenceThe Battle of VareseThe Battle of PalestroJohn Brown's raid on Harpers FerryThe Hispano-Moroccan WarThe Battle of JiangnanThe Battle of MilazzoThe Battle of GuayaquilBeijing's Old Summer Palace is burned to the ground by orders of British general Lord Elgin, in retaliation for mistreatment of several prisoners of war, during the Second Opium WarThe Siege of GaetaThe Battle of Kỳ HòaThe American Civil WarThe Battle of Fort SumterThe Battle of ShanghaiThe Second French Intervention in MexicoThe Battle of Fort DonelsonThe Battle of ValverdeThe Battle of Pea RidgeThe Battle of Hampton RoadsThe Battle of Glorieta PassSiege of YorktownThe Battle of ShilohThe Peninsula CampaignThe Battle of Forts Jackson and St. PhilipThe Capture of New OrleansThe Siege of Fort MaconThe Battle of Seven PinesThe Seven Days BattlesThe Northern Virginia CampaignThe Dakota War of 1862The Second Battle of Bull RunThe Confederate Heartland OffensiveThe Battle of RichmondThe Maryland CampaignThe Raid on ChambersburgThe Battle of FredericksburgThe Vicksburg CampaignThe Battle of Chickasaw BayouThe Battle of Stones RiverThe Battle of Arkansas PostThe January UprisingGrierson's RaidThe Battle of WashingtonThe Battle of ChancellorsvilleThe Colombian Civil WarThe Siege of VicksburgThe Siege of Port HudsonThe Gettysburg CampaignThe Second Battle of WinchesterThe Battle of GettysburgThe New York City Draft RiotsMorgan's RaidThe Bombardment of KagoshimaThe Dominican Restoration WarThe Chickamauga CampaignThe Battle of ChickamaugaThe Resolutions of the Geneva International Conference are signed by sixteen countries meeting in Geneva agreeing to form the International Red CrossThe Battle of WauhatchieThe Chattanooga CampaignThe Second Schleswig WarThe Red River CampaignThe Battle of DybbølThe Battle of the WildernessThe Battle of Spotsylvania Court HouseThe Atlanta CampaignThe Battle of ResacaSiege of PetersburgThe Battle of Noonday CreekThe Battle of Cold HarborThe Battle of AlsThe Third Battle of NankingThe Battle of Mobile BayThe Uruguayan WarThe Battle of Globe TavernThe Battle of JohnsonvilleSherman's March to the SeaThe Franklin–Nashville CampaignThe Paraguayan WarThe Battle of NashvilleThe Second Battle of Fort FisherThe Campaign of the CarolinasThe Battle of BentonvilleThe Appomattox CampaignThe Battle of Palmito RanchThe Grand Review of the ArmiesThe Chincha Islands WarThe Reconstruction EraThe Austro-Prussian WarThe Battle of LangensalzaThe Third Italian War of IndependenceThe British Expedition to AbyssiniaThe Boshin WarThe Battle of Toba–FushimiThe impeachment of Andrew JohnsonThe Battle of MagdalaThe Battle of Utsunomiya CastleThe Grito de LaresThe Battle of HakodateThe Naval Battle of HakodateThe Franco-Prussian WarThe Battle of SedanSiege of ParisThe Siege of MetzThe Paris CommuneThe United States expedition to KoreaThe Great Chicago FireThe Third Carlist WarBattle of TreviñoThe Great Eastern CrisisThe April UprisingThe 1876–77 Constantinople ConferenceThe Satsuma RebellionThe Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878The Great Railroad Strike of 1877The Siege of PlevnaThe Battle of LovchaThe Battle of Shipka PassThe Battle of PlovdivThe Congress of BerlinThe Second Anglo-Afghan WarThe Anglo-Zulu WarThe Battle of Rorke's DriftThe War of the PacificThe First Boer WarThe Warsaw PogromThe British Conquest of EgyptThe Bombardment of AlexandriaThe Sino-French WarThe Battle of FuzhouThe Berlin ConferenceThe Battle of Nui BopThe Third Anglo-Burmese WarThe Serbo-Bulgarian WarThe Battle of SlivnitsaThe Seattle Riot of 1886The Italo-Ethiopian War of 1887–1889The Hells Canyon MassacreThe Sikkim ExpeditionThe Great Seattle FireLondon Dock StrikeThe Revolution of the ParkThe Chilean Civil War of 1891The Hawaiian Rebellions and RevolutionsThe First Matabele WarThe Donghak Peasant RevolutionThe Pullman StrikeThe First Sino-Japanese WarThe Great Hinckley FireThe First Italo-Ethiopian WarThe Cuban War of IndependenceThe Jameson RaidThe Philippine RevolutionThe Benin Expedition of 1897The Greco-Turkish War of 1897The Battle of VelestinoThe Siege of MalakandThe Spanish–American WarThe Puerto Rico CampaignThe Capture of GuamThe Negros RevolutionThe Philippine–American WarThe Second Boer WarThe Siege of MafekingThe Siege of KimberleyThe Siege of LadysmithThe Boxer RebellionThe Battle of PaardebergThe Battle of TakuThe Robert Charles RiotsThe Discovery ExpeditionThe Venezuelan Crisis of 1902–1903The Kishinev PogromThe May CoupThe Second Congress of the All-Russian Social Democratic Labour Party is held in exile in Brussels, transferring to LondonThe Ilinden–Preobrazhenie UprisingThe Great Baltimore FireThe Battle of Port ArthurThe Russo-Japanese WarThe British Expedition to TibetThe Dogger Bank incidentThe Russian Revolution of 1905The Battle of MukdenThe First Moroccan CrisisThe Battle of TsushimaThe Moscow UprisingThe Algeciras ConferenceThe 1907 Romanian Peasants' RevoltThe Atlanta Massacre of 1906The Nimrod ExpeditionThe Young Turk RevolutionThe Bosnian CrisisThe Adana MassacreTragic WeekThe Albanian Revolt of 1910The Terra Nova ExpeditionThe 5 October 1910 RevolutionThe Mexican RevolutionThe Torreón MassacreThe Wuchang UprisingThe 1911 RevolutionItalo-Turkish WarThe Prague ConferenceSinking of the TitanicThe Balkan WarsThe First Balkan WarThe Battle of KumanovoThe Ten Tragic DaysBattle of BizaniThe Battle of AdrianopleThe Battle of Bud BagsakThe Arab Congress of 1913The Second Balkan WarThe Colorado Coalfield WarThe United States Occupation of VeracruzThe July CrisisWorld War IThe Anti-Serb riots in SarajevoThe Pursuit of Goeben and BreslauThe Battle of LiègeThe Western FrontThe Battle of the FrontiersThe Battle of MulhouseThe German Invasion of BelgiumThe Battle of CerThe Serbian CampaignThe Battle of TannenbergThe Russian invasion of East PrussiaThe Great RetreatThe Great RetreatThe Togoland CampaignThe Battle of Le CateauThe Battle of St. QuentinThe First Battle of YpresThe Battle of the Vistula RiverThe East African CampaignThe Battle of TangaThe Siege of TsingtaoZaian WarThe Battle of KolubaraThe Christmas TruceThe Caucasus CampaignThe Battle of SarikamishThe Chilembwe UprisingThe Raid on the Suez CanalThe U-boat CampaignThe Battle of Neuve ChapelleThe Constantinople AgreementThe First Battle of the MarneBattle of RawaThe First Battle of the Masurian LakesThe Battle of Grand CouronnéThe Maritz RebellionThe South West Africa CampaignThe Race to the SeaThe Battle of AlbertThe First Battle of the AisneThe Siege of AntwerpThe Battle of the YserSecond Battle of YpresThe Armenian GenocideThe Gallipoli CampaignThe Second Battle of ArtoisThe Battle of the Rufiji DeltaThe McMahon–Hussein CorrespondenceThe Great RetreatThe Battle of Sari BairThe Battle of LoosThe Erzurum OffensiveThe Mesopotamian CampaignThe Battle of VerdunThe Sinai and Palestine CampaignThe Easter RisingThe Gas Attacks at HulluchSiege of KutThe Battle of JutlandThe Brusilov OffensiveThe Arab RevoltThe Battle of the SommeThe Battle of ErzincanThe Battle of Delville WoodThe Attack at FromellesThe Battle of RomaniThe Battle of Flers–CourceletteThe Raid on NekhlThe Revolutions of 1917–1923The Russian RevolutionThe February RevolutionThe Battle of ArrasThe Battle of Vimy RidgeThe Second Battle of GazaThe Stalemate in Southern PalestineThe Nivelle OffensiveThe 1917 French Army MutiniesThe Battle of MessinesThe East St. Louis MassacreThe Kerensky OffensiveFirst Battle of RamadiRussian troops mutiny, abandon the Austrian front, and retreat to the Ukraine; hundreds are shot by their commanding officers during the retreatThe July DaysAustrian and German forces repulse the Russian advance into GaliciaBattle of PasschendaeleThe Battle of Polygon WoodSecond Battle of RamadiOperation AlbionThe Battle of CaporettoThe Third Battle of GazaThe Battle of Tel el KhuweilfeThe Second Battle of PasschendaeleThe Battle of Hareira and SheriaThe Russian Civil WarThe Battle of JerusalemThe Battle of CambraiThe Spanish Flu EpidemicThe Finnish Civil WarThe Cattaro MutinyThe Capture of JerichoThe Battle of Tell 'AsurThe 1918 Spring OffensiveThe First Transjordan attack on AmmanThe First Battle of AmmanThe March DaysThe Armenian–Azerbaijani WarThe First Ostend RaidThe Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es SaltThe Third Battle of the AisneThe Battle of Sardarabad (The Battle of Skra di LegenThe Battle of Belleau WoodThe Allied intervention in the Russian Civil WarThe Second Battle of the MarneExecution of the Romanov familyThe North Russia InterventionThe Battle of AmiensThe Hundred Days OffensiveThe Second Battle of the SommeThe Mexican Border WarThe Battle of Mont Saint-QuentinKazan OperationThe Battle of Saint-MihielThe Vardar OffensiveThe Battle of Dobro PoleThe Battle of MegiddoThe Third Transjordan attackThe Meuse–Argonne OffensiveThe Capture of DamascusThe Battle of Canal du NordThe Battle of St. Quentin CanalThe Pursuit to HaritanThe Battle of CambraiThe Battle of Vittorio VenetoThe German RevolutionThe Kiel MutinyThe Ukrainian War of IndependenceThe Polish–Ukrainian WarThe Occupation of ConstantinopleThe Estonian War of IndependenceThe Lithuanian–Soviet WarThe Greater Poland Uprising of 1918–1919The Georgian–Armenian WarThe Caspian-Caucasian FrontThe Spartacist UprisingThe Red Army attacks and defeat the White Don Army under Pyotr Krasnovin the Voronezh–Povorino OperationOn the Southern Front, the Armed Forces of South Russia under General Anton Denikin fight against the Red Army for the possession of the strategic region of the DonbassThe Paris Peace ConferenceThe Perm OperationThe Irish War of IndependenceThe Ukrainian–Soviet WarThe Khotin UprisingPressburg (Bratislava) becomes the capital of SlovakiaThe Polish–Soviet WarUniformed peasants in Saaremaa rebel against the government of Estonia; the rebellion is crushed by government forces, leaving more than 200 deadThe Spring Offensive of the Russian ArmyThe Egyptian Revolution of 1919The Vyoshenskaya UprisingInterwar PeriodThe Bavarian Soviet Republic is foundedThe Reds go on the offensive on the Siberia Front: General Gaya Gai defeats the White forces near Orenburg after a 3-day battle. Over the next weeks, the Red Army pushes the Whites behind the Ural mountainsRed SummerThe First Red ScareThe 1919 United States Anarchist BombingsThe Third Anglo-Afghan WarThe Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922The Turkish War of IndependenceThe Latvian War of IndependenceThe 2nd and 3rd armies of Soviet Russia recapture the city of PermThe White Volunteer Army defeat the exhausted Red forces in the Kharkiv Operation, capturing the industrial city of KharkivThe Battle of CēsisThe Red Army captures the city of Ekaterinburg in the Ural mountains from the White rule of Admiral Alexander KolchakThe Chicago Race Riot of 1919The Silesian UprisingsPoles in Upper Silesia rise against the GermansThe August Counter-Offensive of the Southern FrontSiberian Front: Admiral Alexander Kolchak launches his final offensive in the Tobolsk operation, defeating the Red ArmyThe Elaine MassacreThe Great Siberian Ice MarchConference of LondonThe Partition of the Ottoman EmpireThe Franco-Syrian WarThe San Remo ConferenceThe Georgian Coup in May 1920The 1920 Ganja RevoltThe Greek Summer Offensive of 1920The Second Congress of the Communist International takes place in Saint Petersburg and Moscow; the notorious Twenty-one Conditions are adoptedThe Battle of WarsawThe Tambov RebellionThe Bukhara OperationThe Turkish–Armenian WarThe Burning of CorkThe Brussels Conference establishes a timetable for German war reparations, intended to extend for over 42 yearsThe Red Army Invasion of GeorgiaThe Kronstadt RebellionThe Jaffa RiotsThe Tulsa Race MassacreThe Battle of Blair MountainThe Russian Famine of 1921–22The Rand RebellionThe Genoa Economic and Financial ConferenceThe Irish Civil WarThe Battle of DublinThe March on RomeThe Rosewood MassacreThe Klaipėda RevoltThe Occupation of the RuhrThe Corfu incidentThe Hamburg UprisingThe Beer Hall PutschKuomintang holds its first National Congress, establishing Whampoa military academy and initiating policy of alliance with the Soviet Union and the Chinese Communist PartyThe First United States Occupation of the Dominican RepublicThe Banana WarsThe August UprisingThe 1924 Kohat RiotsPink's WarThe Locarno TreatiesThe May CoupThe Northern ExpeditionChinese Civil War (first phase, 1927–1937)The Cristero WarProhibition in the United StatesThe 1926 Imperial ConferenceThe Nicaraguan Civil War of 1926–27The Nanking IncidentThe Jinan incidentThe Afghan Civil WarGerman rigid airship LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin makes a circumnavigation of the Northern Hemisphere eastabout out of Lakehurst, New Jersey, including the first nonstop flight of any kind across the Pacific Ocean (Tokyo–Los Angeles)The 1929 Arab Riots in PalestineThe Wall Street Crash of 1929The Salt MarchThe Ararat RebellionThe Great DepressionThe Second Encirclement CampaignThe Madeira UprisingThe Castellammarese WarThe Mukden IncidentThe Japanese Invasion of ManchuriaLa MatanzaThe January 28 incidentThe Mäntsälä RebellionThe Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932The Lausanne ConferenceThe Chaco WarThe Han–Liu WarThe Soviet Famine of 1932–33The War of Jenkins' EarThe 1740 Batavia MassacreWar of the Austrian SuccessionThe First Silesian WarThe Battle of Cartagena de IndiasThe Invasion of CubaFranco-Bavarian troops commanded by Maurice of Saxony storm PragueThe 1742 Invasion of GeorgiaDagohoy RebellionThe naval Battle of ToulonKing George's WarThe Second Silesian WarThe Jacobite Rising of 1745The Battle of Grand PréSiege of MaastrichtLhasa Riot of 1750Father Le Loutre's WarThe French and Indian WarBraddock ExpeditionExpulsion of the AcadiansSiege of Fort St PhilipSeven Years' WarThird Silesian WarA French army under Louis-Joseph de Montcalm forces the English to surrender Fort William Henry. The French army's Indian allies slaughter the survivors for unclear reasonsThe Pomeranian WarSiege of LouisbourgBattle of CarillonBattle of TiconderogaBattle of LagosBattle of CarrickfergusSiege of QuebecBattle of RestigoucheMontreal CampaignThe Siege of PondicherrySiege of HavanaBattle of ManilaPontiac's WarSiege of Fort DetroitBattle of Bushy RunBurmese–Siamese WarRusso-Turkish WarFrench Conquest of CorsicaSino-Burmese WarBattle of ChesmePlague RiotAmerican Revolutionary WarBattle of MachiasBoston CampaignSiege of BostonSiege of Fort St. JeanInvasion of QuebecKnox ExpeditionRaid of NassauFortification of Dorchester HeightsBattle of the CedarsNew York and New Jersey CampaignGeorge Washington's crossing of the Delaware RiverSaratoga CampaignSiege of Fort TiconderogaSiege of Fort StanwixAnglo-French WarIllinois CampaignBattle of MinisinkPenobscot ExpeditionGreat Siege of GibraltarGulf Coast CampaignBattle of Baton RougeSiege of SavannahSan Juan ExpeditionThe Gordon RiotsRebellion of Túpac Amaru IIFourth Anglo-Dutch WarYorktown CampaignSiege of YorktownBattle of the SaintesPeace of ParisBattle of Rạch Gầm-Xoài MútShays' RebellionThe Annapolis Convention is held by delegates from six of the 13 states (Maryland, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey and New York) resulting in the scheduling of the Philadelphia Convention to draft a national constitutionPrussian Invasion of HollandRusso-Turkish War of 1787–1792The doctors' riotBattle of KaránsebesBattle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống ĐaThe French RevolutionLiège RevolutionBrabant RevolutionRusso-Swedish War of 1788–1790Battle of AndrosBattle of SvensksundFlight to VarennesPriestley RiotsHaitian RevolutionFrench Revolutionary WarsWar of the First CoalitionPolish-Russian War of 1792September MassacresFlanders CampaignFrench expedition to SardiniaThe Reign of TerrorWar of the PyreneesBattle of WattigniesSiege of ToulonWar in the VendéeKościuszko UprisingWarsaw Uprising of 1794Second Battle of BoulouBattle of TrippstadtSiege of Warsaw of 1794Battle of GenoaCuraçao Slave Revolt of 1795Invasion of the Cape ColonyInvasion of CeylonBattle of MontenotteBattle of LonatoSiege of MantuaBattle of ArcoleBattle of RivoliAction of 13 January 1797Battle of FishguardBattle of San JuanVeronese EasterBattle of Santa Cruz de TenerifeIrish Rebellion of 1798French campaign in Egypt and SyriaQuasi-WarBattle of the NileBattle of St. George's CayeMediterranean Campaign of 1798Peasants' WarSiege of CorfuWar of the Second CoalitionSiege of JaffaSiege of AcreAnglo-Russian Invasion of HollandSiege of GenoaFirst Barbary WarWar of the OrangesSiege of CairoAlgeciras CampaignSecond Battle of AlgecirasThe Treaty of Amiens between France and the United Kingdom ends the War of the Second CoalitionNapoleonic WarsSerbian RevolutionFirst Serbian Uprising1804 Haiti MassacreLewis and Clark ExpeditionBattle of DernaBattle of Diamond RockWar of the Third CoalitionUlm CampaignBattle of UlmTrafalgar CampaignBattle of BlaauwbergPike ExpeditionWar of the Fourth CoalitionCapitulation of StettinBattle of EylauFroberg MutinySiege of DanzigThe Peace of Tilsit is signed between France, Prussia and Russia. Napoleon and Russian Emperor Alexander I ally together against the British. The Prussians are forced to cede more than half their territory, which is formed into the Duchy of Warsaw in their former Polish lands, and the Kingdom of Westphalia in western Germany. Free City of Danzig is also formedGunboat WarSecond Battle of CopenhagenPeninsular WarInvasion of PortugalFinnish WarDano-Swedish War of 1808–1809First Siege of ZaragozaBattle of BailénSecond Siege of ZaragozaTyrolean Rebellion of 1809War of the Fifth CoalitionBattle of the Basque RoadsBattle of EckmühlBattle of GrijóBattle of Aspern-EsslingMauritius Campaign of 1809–1811Battle of WagramArmistice of ZnaimBattle of TalaveraWalcheren CampaignMay RevolutionArgentine War of IndependenceBattle of Grand PortAnglo-Swedish War (1810–1812)Invasion of Isle de France1811 German Coast UprisingMexican War of IndependenceSiege of CádizBattle of AnholtSiege of Ciudad RodrigoSiege of BadajozRusso-Turkish War (1806–1812)War of 1812French invasion of RussiaBattle of KlyastitsySecond Battle of PolotskBattle of KrasnoiBattles of FrenchtownVenezuelan War of IndependenceFort Meigs is first besieged, by British allied forces under General Henry Proctor and Chief TecumsehWar of the Sixth CoalitionBattle of BautzenBattle of DresdenBattle of KulmBattle of LeipzigPersia and Russia sign the Treaty of Gulistan at the end of the Russo-Persian War, by which Persia loses modern-day Georgia, Dagestan and most of Azerbaijan to RussiaCapture of Fort NiagaraSiege of CattaroSiege of MetzSiege of AntwerpSiege of RagusaSix Days CampaignBattle of Gué-à-TresmesBattle of LaonBattle of Martín GarcíaBattle of ReimsBattle of Arcis-sur-AubeBattle of JobourgBattle of ParisRaid on Port DoverBattle of Big Sandy CreekSiege of Prairie du ChienSwedish–Norwegian WarBattle of Mackinac IslandSiege of Fort ErieEngagements on Lake HuronRaid on AlexandriaBattle of PlattsburghBattle of BaltimoreSiege of Fort ErieBattle of FayalHadži-Prodan's rebellionCongress of ViennaNeapolitan WarHundred Days WarSecond Serbian UprisingBattle of TolentinoWaterloo CampaignThe Anglo-Nepalese WarIn Philadelphia, the African Methodist Episcopal Church is established by Richard Allen and other African-American Methodists, the first such denomination in the U.S. completely independent of White churchesCrossing of the AndesThe Third Anglo-Maratha WarThe Missouri Compromise becomes law, allowing admission of Missouri and Maine, slave and free states respectively, as U.S. statesThe Radical WarThe Greek War of IndependenceThe Turco-Egyptian conquest of SudanThe Siege of TripolitsaThe Battle of NaupliaThe Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint LouisThe First Anglo-Burmese WarThe Confederation of the EquatorThe Bathurst WarThe Bolivian War of IndependenceThe Java WarThe Third Siege of MissolonghiThe Ottoman–Egyptian Invasion of ManiThe Fredonian RebellionThe Cisplatine WarBattle of Monte SantiagoRusso-Persian War of 1826–1828Gran Colombia–Peru WarThe Liberal WarsThe Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829The Invasion of Algiers in 1830The French Revolution of 1830The Belgian RevolutionThe November UprisingThe Bosnian uprisingThe 10 days' campaignNat Turner's RebellionThe Battle of WarsawThe Baptist WarThe Black Hawk WarThe June 1832 RebellionThe Siege of AntwerpThe First Carlist WarNew York anti-abolitionist riots (1834)The Ragamuffin WarThe Texas RevolutionSecond Seminole WarThe Battle of the AlamoThe First Opium War3 September 1843 RevolutionThe Franco-Moroccan WarThe Flagstaff WarThe Great FamineThe First Anglo-Sikh WarThe Battle of FerozeshahThe Kraków UprisingThe Mexican–American WarBattle of Buena VistaThe Sonderbund WarThe Sicilian Revolution of Independence of 1848The California Gold RushThe March UnrestThe Revolutions of 1848The Hungarian Revolution of 1848The German Revolutions of 1848–49The First Schleswig WarThe Second Anglo-Sikh WarThe Prague Slavic Congress of 1848The Wallachian Revolution of 1848The June Days UprisingThe Seneca Falls ConventionThe Matale rebellionThe Battle of KápolnaThe Spring CampaignThe May UprisingThe Nine Years' WarThe Eighty Years' WarThe Long Turkish WarSiege of KinsaleBattle of the Narrow SeasThe Ottoman–Safavid War of 1603–1618Siege of OstendBattle of Cape RachadoHenry Hudson in the Halve Maen sails into Upper New York Bay,[5] and begins a journey up the Hudson RiverNossa Senhora da Graça incidentAn uprising in Moscow expels Polish troopsBattle of SwallyThe Ottoman–Habsburg WarsThe Raid on ŻejtunThe War of the Jülich SuccessionThe Siege of OsakaThe Naval Second Battle of Playa HondaSiege of PilsenThe Thirty Years' WarQing conquest of the MingBattle of HumennéBattle of CecoraPapal Conclave of 1621Siege of Bergen op ZoomPapal Conclave of 1623Siege of BredaRelief of GenoaRecapture of BahiaRebellious farmers are hanged in Vocklamarkt, Upper AustriaBattle of San JuanCádiz ExpeditionPolish–Swedish War (1626–1629)Battle of NingyuanLater Jin invasion of JoseonThe Turkish AbductionsSiege of GroenloSiege of La RochelleSiege of StralsundBattle in the Bay of MatanzasThe Puritan Migration to New EnglandSiege of 's-HertogenboschSiege of PrivasSiege of AlèsAnglo–Spanish WarThe Battle of St. KittsThe Swedish invasion of the Holy Roman EmpireDay of the DupesSack of MagdeburgBattle of the SlaakSiege of MaastrichtBattle of the Alte VesteBattle of Liaoluo BayThe Smolensk WarThe Siege of SmolenskThe Battle of NördlingenThe Burchardi flood (also known as the second Grote Mandrenke) strikes the North Sea coast of Germany and Denmark, causing 8,000–12,000 deathsSiege of SchenkenschansThe Shimabara RebellionBattle of RheinfeldenBattle of KalloThe Portuguese Restoration WarThe Irish Rebellion of 1641The Irish Confederate WarsSiege of HullThe English Civil WarBattle of Muster GreenDutch expedition to ValdiviaBattle of TuttlingenBattle of LostwithielSiege of HerefordSiege of Basing HouseThe Battles of La Naval de ManilaCharles I's journey from Oxford to the Scottish army camp near NewarkSiege of OxfordBattle of PragueThe Franco-Spanish WarSiege of DroghedaSack of WexfordSiege of ClonmelSiege of DundeeEscape of Charles II from England to FranceThe First Anglo-Dutch WarGuo Huaiyi rebellionBattle of the GabbardBarebone's Parliament meets in London, EnglandBattle of ScheveningenSiege of SmolenskThe Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667The Savoyard–Waldensian WarsInvasion of JamaicaThe Second Northern WarSiege of Jasna GóraThe First War of VillmergenThe Russo-Swedish War of 1656–1658The Dano-Swedish War of 1657–1658The March Across the BeltsBattle of Rio NuevoThe Siege of ToruńThe Dano-Swedish War of 1658–1660Booth's UprisingBattle of GrudziądzBattle of LyubarTen of the 57 "regicides" who signed the death warrant of Charles I of England in 1649 are executed over a period of one week, mostly at Charing Cross by being hanged, drawn and quartered, a process which includes being disemboweled (in some cases before they have died) and then and burned. The first to die is Thomas Harrison, a leader of the Fifth Monarchists. He is followed by John Carew (October 15); John Cook and Hugh Peter (October 16); (Adrian Scrope, John Moore, Gregory Clement and Thomas Scot) (OctoSiege of Fort ZeelandiaThe Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664)Siege of Novi ZrinThe Second Anglo-Dutch WarThe Four Days' BattleThe Battle of BerlengasThe Great Fire of LondonWar of DevolutionRaid on the MedwaySiege of LilleThe 1668 Bawdy House RiotsThe Cretan WarThe Siege of CandiaThe 1669–70 papal conclaveThe Third Anglo-Dutch WarThe Franco-Dutch WarInvasion of MartiniqueThe Swedish invasion of BrandenburgKing Philip's WarAn envoy from Massachusetts attempts to negotiate with the Nipmuck tribeThe Nipmucks attack Massachusetts troops and besiege Brookfield, MassachusettsWhile Wampanoags and Nipmucks attack Deerfield, Massachusetts, Captain Samuel Moseley commands Massachusetts troops in an attack on the Pennacook tribeThe Bremen-Verden CampaignThe 1675–1676 Malta plague epidemicThe Siege of ValenciennesSiege of MalmöThe Siege of YpresBattle of Saint-DenisThe Pueblo Revolt of 1680The Moscow uprising of 1682Battle of PenghuPolish–Ottoman War (1683–1699)The Great Turkish WarBattle of ViennaThe Morean WarThe Bombardment of GenoaThe Siege of LuxembourgThe War of the ReunionsThe Siege of Santa MauraThe Monmouth RebellionThe Bloody AssizesSiege of BudaSiege of PécsSiege of the AcropolisSiege of NegroponteSiege of BelgradeGlorious RevolutionThe Nine Years' WarWilliamite War in IrelandSiege of DerryLeisler's RebellionJacobite rising of 1689Siege of CarrickfergusSiege of MainzThe fire of SkopjeMassachusetts Puritans, led by Sir William Phips, besiege the city of Quebec; the siege ends in failureSiege of BelgradeSiege of MonsBattles of Barfleur and La HougueSiege of NamurTunisian–Algerian WarSecond Siege of NamurBombardment of BrusselsThe Grand EmbassyThe Safavid occupation of BasraSiege of BarcelonaThe Great Northern WarThe War of the Spanish SuccessionThe Siege of NöteborgQueen Anne's WarBattle of Flint RiverSiege of St. AugustineSiege of KehlSiege of GuadeloupeRákóczi's War of IndependenceDaniel Defoe is placed in a pillory in London, then imprisoned for four months for the crime of seditious libel after publishing his satirical political pamphlet The Shortest Way with the Dissenters (1702) (his release is granted in mid-November)The Apalachee massacreCapture of GibraltarTwelfth siege of GibraltarSiege of ZoutleeuwThe Bavarian uprising of 1705–1706Battle of GrodnoSiege of BarcelonaSiege of TurinSiege of XàtivaSiege of ToulonThe Siege of Ciudad RodrigoSiege of PensacolaThe Hōei eruptionSwedish invasion of RussiaCapitulation of Estonia and LivoniaThe Siege of Port RoyalBattle of BrihuegaThe Siege of BouchainThe Tuscarora WarThe Huilliche uprising of 1712The Toggenburg WarSiege of BarcelonaThe Seventh Ottoman–Venetian WarSiege of NaupliaThe Ottoman reconquest of the MoreaThe Jacobite rising of 1715Battle of PrestonThe Siege of CorfuThe Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)The Siege of TemeşvarThe Great Snow of 1717Siege of BelgradeThe Spanish conquest of SardiniaThe War of the Quadruple AllianceThe Battle of Cape Fear RiverThe Carolean Death MarchThe Siege of San SebastiánThe Russian PillageThe Attack on MarstrandRaid on NassauThe Villasur expeditionDummer's WarThe Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723Peter the Great's capture of RashtThe Mapuche uprising of 1723The Siege of Gibraltar of 1727The First Kamchatka ExpeditionThe 1727 British general electionThe Copenhagen Fire of 1728The Spanish conquest of Oran and Mers el-KebirThe War of the Polish Succession1733 slave insurrection on St. JohnThe Siege of DanzigThe Siege of PhilippsburgThe Siege of GaetaThe Porteous RiotsThe Russo-Turkish War of 1735–1739Battle of GrockaThe Epiphany RisingThe Jingnan campaignIn the Shandong province of Ming dynasty China, Zhu Di, Prince of Yan, defeats the Imperial forces of General Li Jinglong in the two-day Battle of Baigou River, by taking advantage of the chaos that results when a gust of wind breaks the staff of General Li's flag of battle. The Yan forces capture 100,000 of the Imperial soldiers as prisoners and Li and the others retreat to JinanThe Ottoman InterregnumThe Ming invasion of VietYongle Emperor's campaigns against the MongolsSamogitian uprisingsThe Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic WarThe Hundred Years' WarSiege of CaenSiege of RouenSiege of CeutaThe Hussite WarsThe Battle of VyšehradSt. Elizabeth's floodSiege of MeauxSiege of ConstantinopleThe Gollub WarThe War of L'AquilaSiege of St. JamesBattle of TachovSiege of OrléansThe Armagnac–Burgundian Civil WarSiege of La CharitéBattle of TrnavaThe Trial of Joan of ArcSiege of CalaisJames I of Scotland is fatally stabbed at Perth in a failed coup by his uncle and former ally, Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl.The Battle of TangierBattle of HermannstadtThe Old Zurich WarThe Albanian–Venetian War of 1447–48The Lancastrian WarSiege of SvetigradFirst Siege of KrujëFall of ConstantinopleThe Thirteen Years' WarThe Wars of the RosesSiege of BelgradeSiege of TrebizondThe Ottoman conquest of LesbosThe Cham–Đại Việt War of 1471The War of the Castilian SuccessionThe Siege of ShkodraSiege of RhodesOttoman conquest of OtrantoThe Great Stand on the Ugra RiverThe Granada WarEnglish invasion of ScotlandBuckingham's rebellionBattle of UnaSiege of ViennaThe English sweating sicknessSiege of MálagaAlain I of Albret captures the Château des ducs de Bretagne for the FrenchSiege of GrandaSiege of BoulogneJames IV of Scotland invades Northumberland, in support of the pretender to the English throne, Perkin WarbeckSecond Cornish uprisingColumbus explores the Gulf of Paria. On August 5 he lands on the Paria Peninsula,[2] the first definitely recorded landing of Europeans on the mainland AmericasSwabian WarFirst Rebellion of the AlpujarrasSecond Italian WarSiege of the Castle of Saint GeorgeThe Dano-Swedish WarFirst Battle of CannanoreThe Italian Wars of 1499-1504The First Luso–Malabarese WarThe Lisbon massacreSiege of CannanoreThe War of the League of CambraiMamluk–Portuguese conflictsSiege of PaduaThe Portuguese conquest of GoaThe Prince of Anhua rebellionThe Şahkulu rebellionThe Fifth Council of the LateranBattle of MarignanoThe Ottoman–Mamluk War of 1516–1517The Hernández de Córdoba expeditionThe Prince of Ning rebellionThe Revolt of the ComunerosThe Spanish conquest of the Aztec EmpireThe Stockholm BloodbathChristian II is crowned king of Sweden in Nikolai Church.[12] The coronation is followed by a three-day feast in StockholmMartin Luther is examined before Emperor Charles V and the Diet of Worms, where he refuses to recant his writings and allegedly proclaims, "Here I stand", regarding his belief in the Bible alone, as the standard of Christian doctrineThe Magellan expeditionThe Italian War of 1521–1526Siege of BelgradeThe oldest surviving dateable document written primarily in the Romanian language: Neacșu's letter, written by a trader from Câmpulung, to Johannes Benkner, the mayor of Brașov, warning that the Ottoman Empire is preparing its troops to cross into Wallachia and Transylvania; the script used is Romanian CyrillicFall of TenochtitlanSiege of RhodesThe Knights' WarThe Battle of Ash-Shihr
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