Abdülhamid II (jan 1, 1842 – jan 1, 1918)

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Abdülhamid II was the Ottoman sultan from 1876 to 1909, ruling with an iron grip while pushing the last big wave of Tanzimat reforms and using pan-Islamism to resist Western interference. He took the throne after his brother Murad V was deposed and initially introduced a constitution in 1876 to calm foreign powers. But after a disastrous war with Russia (1877–78), he shut down Parliament and ruled for 30 years from his secluded palace, relying on secret police, censorship, and a tight communication network to maintain control. As European powers chipped away at Ottoman lands—France taking Tunisia, Britain controlling Egypt—Abdülhamid turned to Germany for support, allowing them to build the Baghdad Railway (1899). He also used pan-Islamism to strengthen his rule and stir up resistance against European colonial powers, with the Hejaz Railway as a symbol of this effort. Despite his strict rule, he made big strides in education, setting up professional schools, expanding military training, and founding the University of Istanbul (1900). He also modernized the justice system and improved transportation with new railways and telegraphs.But his oppressive rule and growing frustration over European meddling in the Balkans sparked the Young Turk Revolution in 1908. After a failed attempt to regain power in 1909, he was overthrown and replaced by his brother, Mehmed V, marking the end of his reign.

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