Other messianic claimants of the era (jan 1, 4 BC – dec 31, 72)

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Even as the conceptual framework of the messiah expanded into eschatological space, it never lost its more pragmatic, earthly ambitions. If anything, the notion of a kingly, conquering messiah only gained in potency. The historian Josephus, our only in-depth, contemporary historian of first century Palestine, points to messianic prophecy as the principal cause behind the Jewish war of opposition against their Roman occupiers:

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But now what did the most [to] elevate [the Jews] in undertaking this war, was an ambiguous oracle, that was also found in their sacred writings; how “About that time one, from their country, should become governor of the habitable earth.” The Jews took this prediction to belong to themselves in particular
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Even prior to the war, Josephus’ description of regional events includes a number of disturbances in which a singular figure roused significant public support for one doomed cause or another. Certain aspects of these instances may be directly germane to our understanding of the life of the historical Jesus, whose life they bracket, so these are worth examining in some detail.

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[CA. 4 BCE] There was also Judas, the son of that Ezekias who had been head of the robbers … This Judas having gotten together a multitude of men of a profligate character about Sepphoris in Galilee, made an assault upon the palace [there]; and seized upon all the weapons that were laid up in it, and with them armed every one of those that were with him; and carried away what money was left there: and he became terrible to all men, by tearing and rending those that came near him; and all this in order to raise himself, and out of an ambitious desire of the royal dignity. And he hoped to obtain that as the reward, not of his virtuous skill in war, but of his extravagance in doing injuries.

[CA. 4 BCE] There was also Simon, who had been a slave of Herod the King’s, but in other respects a comely person, of a tall and robust body; he was one that was much superior to others of his order, and had had great things committed to his care. This man was elevated at the disorderly state of things; and was so bold as to put a diadem on his head: while a certain number of the people stood by him: and by them he was declared to be a King: and thought himself more worthy of that dignity than any one else. He burnt down the royal palace at Jericho, and plundered what was left in it. He also set fire to many other of the King’s houses, in several places of the country; and utterly destroyed them: and permitted those that were with him to take what was left in them for a prey. And he would have done greater things unless care had been taken to repress him immediately. For Gratus, when he had joined himself to some Roman soldiers, took the forces he had with him, and met Simon: and after a great and a long fight, no small part of those that came from Perea, who were a disordered body of men, and fought rather in a bold than in a skilful manner, were destroyed. And although Simon had saved himself, by flying away through a certain valley, yet Gratus overtook him, and cut off his head.

[CA. 4 BCE] At this time it was that a certain shepherd ventured to set himself up for a king; he was called Athrongeus. It was his strength of body that made him expect such a dignity, as well as his soul which despised death; and, besides these qualifications, he had four brethren like himself. He put a troop of armed men under each of these his brethren, and made use of them as his generals and commanders, when he made his incursions, while he did himself act like a king, and meddled only with the more important affairs: and at this time he put a diadem about his head, and continued after that to over-run the country for no little time with his brethren, and became their leader in killing both the Romans and those of the king’s party; nor did any Jew escape him, if any gain could accrue to him thereby. He once ventured to encompass a whole troop of Romans at Emmaus, who were carrying corn and weapons to their legion; his men therefore shot their arrows and darts, and thereby slew their centurion Arius, and forty of the stoutest of his men, while the rest of them, who were in danger of the same fate, upon the coming of Gratus, with those of Sebaste, to their assistance, escaped. And when these men had thus served both their own countrymen and foreigners, and that through this whole war, three of them were after some time subdued, the eldest by Archelaus, the two next by falling into the hands of Gratus and Ptolemeus; but the fourth delivered himself up to Archelaus, upon his giving him his right hand for his security. However, this their end was not till afterward, while at present they filled all Judea with a piratic war.

[CA. 6 CE] Judas, a Gaulonite; of a city whose name was Gamala; who, taking with him Saddouk, a Pharisee, became zealous to draw them to a revolt: who both said that this taxation was no better than an introduction to slavery: and exhorted the nation to assert their liberty. As if they could procure them happiness, and security for what they possessed; and an assured enjoyment of a still greater good; which was that of the honour and glory they would thereby acquire for magnanimity. They also said that God would not otherwise be assisting to them, than upon their joining with one another in such counsels as might be successful, and for their own advantage: and this especially if they would set about great exploits; and not grow weary in executing the same. So men received what they said with pleasure: and this bold attempt proceeded to a great height.

[CA. AD 32] Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of Herod’s army came from God: and that very justly, as a punishment of what he did against John, that was called the baptist. For Herod slew him; who was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue; both as to righteousness towards one another, and piety towards God; and so to come to baptism. For that the washing [with water] would be acceptable to him, if they made use of it, not in order to the putting away, [or the remission] of some sins [only,] but for the purification of the body: supposing still that the soul was thoroughly purified before¬hand by righteousness. Now when [many] others came in crouds about him; for they were very greatly moved [or pleased] by hearing his words; Herod, who feared lest the great influence John had over the people might put it into his power and inclination to raise rebellion: (for they seemed ready to do any thing he should advise:) thought it best, by putting him to death, to prevent any mischief he might cause; and not bring himself into difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of it when it would be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, out of Herod’s suspicious temper, to Macherus; the castle I before mentioned; and was there put to death. Now the Jews had an opinion, that the destruction of this army was sent as a punishment upon Herod; and a mark of God’s displeasure to him.

[AD 36] BUT THE NATION OF THE SAMARITANS did not escape without tumults. The man who excited them to it was one who thought lying a thing of little consequence: and who contrived every thing so, that the multitude might be please. So he bid them to get together upon mount Gerizzim: which is by them looked upon as the most holy of all mountains: and assured them, that when they were come thither, he would shew them those sacred vessels which were laid under that place; because Moses put them there. So they came thither armed; and thought the discourse of the man probable. And as they abode at a certain village, which was called Tirathaba, they got the rest together to them, and desired to go up the mountain in a great multitude together. But Pilate prevented their going up, by seizing upon the roads, with a great band of horsemen, and footmen: who fell upon those that were gotten together in the village: and when it came to an action, some of them they slew; and others of them they put to flight; and took a great many alive. The principal of which, and also the most potent of those that fled away, Pilate ordered to be slain.

[AD 46] NOW IT CAME TO PASS, while Fadus was procurator of Judea, that a certain magician, whose name was Theudas, persuaded a great part of the people to take their effects with them, and follow him to the river Jordan. For he told them he was a prophet: and that he would, by his own command, divide the river, and afford them an easy passage over it. And many were deluded by his words. However, Fadus did not permit them to make any advantage of his wild attempt: but sent a troop of horsemen out against them. Who falling upon them unexpectedly, slew many of them, and took many of them alive. They also took Theudas alive, and cut off his head, and carried it to Jerusalem. This was what befel the Jews in the time of Cuspius Fadus’s government.

[AD 54] Now as for the affairs of the Jews, they grew worse and worse continually, for the country was again filled with robberies; and impostors who deluded the multitude. Yet did Felix catch and put to death many of those impostors every day

[AD 55] And now these impostors and deceivers persuaded the multitude to follow them into the wilderness: and pretended that they would exhibit manifest wonders and signs, that should be performed by the providence of God. And many that were prevailed on by them suffered the punishments of their folly. For Felix brought them back; and then punished them. Moreover there came out of Egypt, about this time, to Jerusalem, one that said he was a prophet; and advised the multitude of the common people to go along with him to the mount of olives, as it was called; which lay over against the city, and at the distance of five furlongs. He said farther, that he would shew them from hence how, at his command, the walls of Jerusalem would fall down: and he promised them that he would procure them an entrance into the city through those walls, when they were fallen down. Now when Felix was informed of these things, he ordered his soldiers to take their weapons, and came against them with a great number of horsemen and footmen, from Jerusalem; and attacked the Egyptian, and the people that were with him. He also slew four hundred of them, and took two hundred alive. But the Egyptian himself escaped out of the fight; but did not appear any more.

[AD 59] So Festus sent forces both horsemen and footmen to fall upon those that had been seduced by a certain impostor, who promised them deliverance, and freedom from the miseries they were under, if they would but follow him as far as the wilderness. Accordingly those forces that were sent destroyed both him that had deluded them, and those that were his followers also.

[AD 66] In the mean time one Manahem, the son of Judas that was called the Galilean (who was a very cunning sophister, and had formerly reproached the Jews under Cyrenius, that after God they were subject to the Romans), took some of the men of note with him, and retired to Masada, where he broke open King Herod’s armoury, and gave arms not only to his own people, but to other robbers also. These he made use of for a guard, and returned in the state of a king to Jerusalem; he became the leader of the sedition … Now the overthrow of the places of strength, and the death of the high-priest Ananias, so puffed up Manahem, that he became barbarously cruel; and, as he thought he had no antagonist to dispute the management of affairs with him, he was no better than an insupportable tyrant … they made an assault upon him in the temple; for he went up thither to worship in a pompous manner, and adorned with royal garments, and had his followers with him in their armour … as for Manahem himself, he ran away to the place called Ophla, and there lay skulking in private; but they took him alive, and drew him out before them all; they then tortured him with many sorts of torments, and after all slew him

[CA. AD 71-73?] one Jonathan, a vile person, and by trade a weaver, came thither; and prevailed with no small number of the poorer sort to give ear to him. He also led them into the desert: upon promising them, that he would shew them signs, and apparitions. And as for the other Jews of Cyrene, he concealed his knavery from them; and put tricks upon them. But those of the greatest dignity among them informed Catullus, the governour of the Libyan Pentapolis, of his march into the desert, and of the preparations he had made for it. So he sent out after him both horsemen and footmen, and easily overcame them: because they were unarmed men. Of these many were slain in the fight; but some were taken alive, and brought to Catullus. As for Jonathan, the head of this plot, he fled away at that time: but upon a great and very diligent search, which was made all the country over for him, he was at last taken…he was first tormented, and then burnt alive.
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The earlier of these disturbances are framed in the purely earthly terms of politics, piracy, and/or military engagement; they then begin taking on religious overtones around the time of John the Baptist. But throughout, there are recurring elements, some of which are echoed or reflected in the earliest gospel narratives of Jesus of Galilee, as well as in plausible historical reconstructions of his life. We have leaders with a grandiose personal vision, sometimes openly declaring themselves king or prophet. At times, this leader comes from a very humble background. He attracts a notable (and often seemingly quite suggestible) following, sometimes via floridly supernatural claims. Several times, the leader calls his following into the wilderness, or to prominent Judean landmarks such as the Jordan River or the Mount of Olives. In the earlier episodes, the leader’s following demonstrates itself capable of violence; perhaps motivated by this very history, the Roman authorities begin to move proactively to destroy or scatter such movements and kill their leaders. The leader at times makes a dramatic escape from the clutches of the Romans, only to finally meet death at their hands soon after.

There are some clear general parallels to the life of Jesus, and these are the very same biographical details that most critical historians agree with the gospel narratives about. He likely did come from a humble background and setting; he led an itinerant ministry in the Judean countryside and visited prominent Judean landmarks; he attracted a following; he conceived of himself as a messianic leader; he caused a confrontational disturbance in the Jerusalem temple at Passover; he was promptly executed thereafter by the Roman authorities. Of course, none of the contemporary personalities touched on by Josephus is a perfect match for Jesus, but that is hardly the point, or the standard. Again, what we have here are recurrent elements of the popular agitators of the time and place, which achieve different combinations and proportions in each instance. That is to say, the sketch of the historical Jesus that we can glean from New Testament writing lies along a known spectrum of cult personalities of first century Judea. He was almost certainly just one of this varied series of troublemaker, churned up by forces of political and religious unease percolating in Judea under Roman occupation. What truly differentiates Jesus from the rest of the list is that he made his dramatic escape (narratively speaking) after his execution. That is to say, Jesus’ followers responded to the radical disconfirmation of their hopes for him by doubling down, digging in, and making it their mission to export their explanation of events to anyone who would listen to them.

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