Tertullian (1 gen 197 anni – 31 dic 219 anni)

Descrizione:

Tertullian of Carthage, a sarcastic rigorist, produces a large volume of works covering the whole spectrum of theology, apologetics, heresiology, and instructions for Christian living. Considered a founding father of Western theology, Tertullian expounds the “consubstantial” doctrine of the Trinity (a doctrine which was poorly received by the majority of Christians in his day) as well as the Christological contradiction (and the structured language) behind large portions of the later Nicene Creed. He also develops a unique and detailed conception of the soul’s corporeal nature, it’s ultimate responsibility for sin (over and above the flesh), and the argument for why our actual current flesh would in fact rise again and be admitted to paradise. On these topics and others, Tertullian often makes use of Paul’s writings in ways that utterly contradict and invert his plain meaning. Previewing Origen, he seems to be the earliest writer to hint at the idea of ransom theology. Contra Clement, Tertullian prizes faith over knowledge, absurdity in divine propositions over human rationality, he dispenses entirely with philosophy, placing of highest importance an uncompromising disciple when it comes to Christian living and interaction with the world. Like Clement, he begrudgingly admits of similarities between Christian ideas and those derived from pagan sources. Tertullian heavily utilized works from the New Testament canon in arguing his points, in addition to a few noncanonical ones (soft spot for the book of Enoch; denied the Shepherd of Hermas on ethical grounds). In his biblical exegesis, the retrojection of Jesus into the Old Testament narrative reaches a maximalist pitch, with Jesus sitting in for essentially every single narrated encounter between a human being and God and appropriating all of his Old Testament names. In regard to church practices, Tertullian provides an intricately detailed description the baptismal procedure of his day, but also strikingly attests to pagan uses of such rituals that all tie into the core conception of water as a cleansing agent. He describes various other church customs (including “rejoicing” on Sundays; men and widow(s) living together in platonic households), holidays, and perhaps excommunication practices. He attests that Christian numbers are on the rise, with more wealthy people joining (perhaps producing an imbalance of wealthy women), while the bulk of believers remain quite uneducated. He seems to have had contact with apologetic literature of the era (most notably the Octavius of Minucius Felix), and is the first to reference Suetonius’ mention of Nero’s actions against Christians.

Tertullian attests to the ongoing popularity and broad influence of heterodox sects, as well as the proto-orthodox siege mentality in dealing with them, which may be provoking a “dissipative dogmatism”. The heterodox sects appear to be less hierarchical and puritanical in comparison to the proto-orthodox.
> Proposes an idiosyncratic timeline of heresy in which deviant doctrine only first emerged with Marcion and Valentinus under the Roman bishopric of Eleutherius (174-189 CE), but he repeatedly undermines this by admitting that such doctrine existed as far back as the apostolic age.
> Attests that heretical sects utilize the same scriptures as the proto-orthodox, performing similar pesheresque acrobatics to interpret them in self-serving ways, and that all parties are accustomed to accuse the other of altering said scriptures (while also providing scriptural quotations which show clear proto-orthodox manipulations). The tradition of apostolic succession is likewise tapped by heterodox sects, some of whom gravitate to Paul particularly, or argue that the apostles’ message was subtle or corrupted over time.
> Writes extensively against Marcion, providing him a backstory (and a suspect “deathbed recantation”), describing his theology and literature, and revealing interesting aspects of the period in which the canonical gospels had no proper authorship attributions. Claims a Cerdon was a partner in (or source for) Marcion’s ideas. Tertullian describes contemporary Marcionites as having their own churches, and despite basing their beliefs less on fear of God and more on love towards him, they value ethical lives, martyrdom, and participation in the usual suite of Christian sacraments (excepting marriage).
> Writes against Valentinus, providing a questionable backstory involving prior discipleship under Marcion and building his system in spite after being spurned for a bishopric. Claims that subsequent Valentinian leaders (including Ptolemaeus, Heraclean, Secundus, Marcus, Theotimus, and Axionicus) went in many different theological directions. In describing modern adherents, Tertullian draws on prior writers (Justin, Miltiades, Irenaeus, Proculus), and denies Valentinians ethics and martyrdom; he admits they are a “very large” body, who consider themselves Christian and allow for a half-salvation of sorts for their proto-orthodox opponents.
> Wrote against a Praxeas, an advocate for the newly-christened Monarchian doctrine, which opposed Tertullian’s doctrine of the Trinity and appears to have been the majority Christian position of its day. Praxeas had popularized Monarchianism in Rome and Carthage before (surprisingly) recanting his beliefs.
> Disputes against a large number of specific minor heretics: Hermogenes (God made the world from preexisting/eternal matter); Simon Magus (linked to gnostic doctrine and transmigration of souls; another errant claim that the Romans deified him with a statue); Carpocrates (transmigration and the relativity of evil); Menander (realized eschatology; the body as the flawed creation of angels – also taught by Marcus and Saturninus); Apelles (lapsed Marcionite; taught the revelations of a woman named Philumene, including the creation of the world and human being by a deficient, fiery angel, and that Jesus had a material body derived from the elements/stars); Nicolaitans and followers of the “Gaian heresy” (indulgence), and other Christian swingers; Prodicus (many gods; no need for confession in persecution); Alexander (Jesus put on flesh to do away with the need for it – in the resurrection?); Lucan (denied the immortality of the soul); an unnamed Cainite (anti-baptismal); a “Hebion”/”Ebion” (likely an errant personification of the leader of the Ebionites); a Nigidius (thus far unknown); and a Jupiter (Pythagorean Encratic).
> Disputes against docetic beliefs in general, primarily arising from Marcion, but also naming Basilides. Invokes passages from Luke which bear all the hallmarks of being edited or added specifically to aid in the fight against Docetism.
> Disputes against a gnostic-style realized eschatology
> Disputes against those who question the logic of resurrection of the flesh
> Vaguely alludes to Encratic ideas and disparages Tatian by name.

Tertullian also attests to a number of doctrinal controversies taking place within proto-orthodox Christianity itself:
> The necessity of confession before authorities and the propriety of fleeing or bribing one’s way out of martyrdom (Tertullian attests that some churches would do the latter preemptively)
> Whether marriage is a “good thing”; issues of remarriage. Tertullian’s own views on marriage shifted markedly over time; he eventually came to see marriage as nothing but a lesser species of evil, sex between a married couple as no different than adultery, and children nothing more than fuel for the Antichrist’s fires.
> Whether or not one is allowed in Paradise immediately upon death, or has to wait in Hades (or Abraham’s bosom) until the judgment
> Whether baptism is required for salvation or not
> The nature of Jesus’ flesh and soul, and angelic Christologies
> What condition the resurrected body would return in
> What sorts of jobs should bar a person from participating in church, and if they need to be immediately abandoned by Christians
> Whether Christians need to avoid public shows
> How plain women should seek to be in their dress and appearance
> The enforced veiling of virgin women

Tertullian savagely repudiated the entire project of trying to adapt Greek philosophy for Christian use, believing it to be the source of much heresy and (contra Clement) prizing brute faith over knowledge. In this he stood diametrically opposite Clement of Alexandria. And yet, ironically similar to Clement, a number of Tertullian’s views came to be seen as quite heterodox by the later dominant forms of Christianity:
> Tertullian’s vision of the Trinity involved Jesus and the Holy Spirit having been created by God at some point. Jesus and the Holy Spirit were explicitly described as subordinate to God, in the “second and third” ranks.
> Tertullian eventually embraced Montanism, its leaders, and its charismatic practice of ongoing revelation from the Paraclete, using this prophetic backdrop to validate many of his doctrinal assertions (including that of the Trinity). He complained bitterly that Praxeas had influenced the Roman bishop to withdraw a previous sanction for the movement (!), after which Tertullian joined with other Montanists in severing relationship from the “carnally-minded” or “Psychic” proto-orthodox world. He subsequently attacked the proto-orthodox church leadership (probably the Roman bishop Callistus) for allowing forgiveness for penitent adulterers and fornicators, and he impugned the “double honor” (double portion of foodstuffs) given to the Psychic church leadership (ala the Didascalia). He may have written an entire series of (now lost) works against the proto-orthodox sect, including a volume dedicated to refuting Apollonius of Ephesus.
> Tertullian possibly believed that the worst human souls became demons after death.

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