Self-sustained and self-reliance (1 ene 1866 año – 1 ene 1870 año)

Descripción:

Ex-slaves benefited from the support of northern whites; but they were determined to achieve educational self-sufficiency in the long run with or without the aid of northerners

Alvord noted the "self-sustaining element" in the ex-slaves' educational movement – recognized the organization and discipline that underlay the school campaign

Attributed the ex-slaves' campaign – a desire to imitate educated whites, an attraction to the mystery of literate culture, the practical needs of business life, and the stimulating effects of freedom

Viewed literacy and formal education as means to liberation and freedom; education for the freedmen could serve as a safeguard against fraud and manipulation

The school system was virtually complete in its institutional form by 1870

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