Eventos
George Washington elected as first presidentFirst Congress meets in New York CityFirst inaugural addressMessage replying to House of RepresentativesMessage replying to SenateSigns first act of Congress: administering oaths of officeMessage to Senate regarding convention with France of 1788Signs Tariff Act of 1789Signs Act establishing the Department of Foreign AffairsSigns Act establishing the Department of WarLighthouse Act signedSigns Act establishing the Treasury DepartmentChanges name of Department of Foreign Affairs to Department of StateSigns Act to Establish the Judicial Courts of the United StatesNominates John Jay as the 1st Chief Justice of the Supreme CourtCongress adopts 12 Constitutional Amendments which are sent to the states to be ratifiedFirst 12 amendments sent to statesNominates Thomas Jefferson as 1st Secretary of StateLewis and Clark can see and hear the PacificJefferson provides confidential information to Congress on secret negotiations to buy the territory in Florida from FranceFifth State of the Union MessageSigns Act (1 Stat 357) regulating the creation of a road from Cumberland, Maryland, to the Ohio RiverLewis and Clark begin their return journey“Non-importation Act” (1 Stat 379). Prohibiting British imports passed in protest against the seizure of American ships and the impressment of American sailors by BritainZebulon Pike (for whom Pikes Peak is named) sets out to explore the Southwest authorized by JeffersonAmerican envoys James Monroe and William Pinckney commence talks with British official Lord Holland on the current naval hostilitiesLewis and Clark expedition arrives back in St. LouisSixth State of the Union MessageProclamation in warning Americans not to conspire against SpainMessage to Congress on the Burr Conspiracy (“information received touching an illegal combination of private individuals against the peace and safety of the Union . . . “)Special message, Aaron Burr arrestedSigns Judiciary Act (2 Stat 420) increasing Supreme Court from 6 to 7 members and modifying federal court structure in Kentucky, Tennessee, and OhioSigns Act (2 Stat 426) prohibiting importation of slaves into any place within the jurisdiction of the United States after January 1, 1808. Also calls for forfeiture of vessels in the slave trade. But, imported slaved remain subject to state regulations. Transporting slaves within the United States is permittedSigns Act (2 Stat 443) authorizing use of Navy to suppress insurrection. If the President may “call for the militia,” he may either land or naval forces “as shall be judged necessary.” Reaction to Burr caseThe Leopard incident: British ship Leopard fires upon the United States frigate Chesapeake in Chesapeake Bay after the latter's commander, James Barron, refuses to surrender four British deserters on boardWriting as a member of a Circuit Court, Chief Justice John Marshall issues a judgment in the treason trial of Aaron Burr rejecting evidence connecting Burr to "the overt act" of treason. On 09/01/1807 the jury found Burr not guilty. Despite his hostility to both Marshall and Burr, Jefferson accepted this judgmentProclamation Granting pardon to all deserters who return to dutySeventh State of the Union MessageBritain issues "Order in Council" forbidding neutral nations and her allies from trading with France except under tribute to EnglandResponds to petitions from legislatures in several states to say that he will not seek a third term as PresidentNapoleon issues Milan Decree, forbidding trade with England and her colonies and authorizing French ships to capture neutral ships sailing from any port in Britain or any country occupied by British forcesSigns Embargo Act (1 Stat 451), Requiring an embargo on all ships bound for foreign places. This act was unpopular and figured in the 1808 electionAct Prohibiting Importation of Slaves, proclaiming that no new slaves could be imported into the U.S, takes effectThe Second Embargo Act elaborates further on operation of embargo authorized on 12/22/1807Napoleon issues “Bayonne Decree” treating American private ships arriving in Europe as if coming from British portsProclamation 15—Warning All Persons on Lake Champlain and Adjacent County to Cease Violence and Disperse. Jefferson responds to violations of the Embargo ActEighth State of the Union MessagePresidential election; Madison elected, George Clinton vice president. Jefferson vice president, George Clinton loses contest for presidencyPresidential electors cast ballotsProclamation- Convening an extra Session of the United States SenateSigns Enforcement Act (2 Stat 506), forbidding any movement of goods with the purpose of exporting themSigns Act (2 Stat 514) establishing the creation of Illinois by dividing Indiana along the Wabash River and creating new separate territory effective 03/01/1809Electoral votes counted in CongressSigns Non-intercourse Act (2 Stat 528) forbidding entry to US ports by “public vessels” of Great Britain and France after 03/01/1809, or for US citizens to provide supplies to such ships; after 05/20/1809 all vessels from Great Britain or France are interdicted; imports from those countries forbidden. President is authorized to reverse this law and restore trade if France or Great Britain revoke or modify their edicts. Non-Importation Act of 04/18/1806 is repealedJames Madison inauguratedU.S. Supreme Court’s Bank of the United States v. Deveaux decision marks the first time corporate rights are examined, granting them the right to sue the federal courtProclaims the Erskine Agreement to reestablish trade between the United States and Great BritainMessage to Special Session of Congress. Announces that by virtue of British concessions, commerce between Britain and the U.S. can be renewable after June 10. He urges that revision of U.S. commercial laws be undertaken. In the message he refers to the Proclamation of 04/19/1809By Proclamation, renews the prohibition of trade between the United States and Great BritainFirst annual message to CongressSends Special Message to the House and Senate to call for strengthening of the militia regarding tensions with Spain over West FloridaDelivers Special Message to the Senate presenting the ratification of a treaty with the Kickapoo tribe that was concluded the year before on 12/09/1809U.S. Supreme Court’s Fletcher v. Peck decision marks first time a state law is struck down as unconstitutionalSigns Macon’s Bill Number 2 (2 stat 605), reopening American trade with Britain and France but threatening “nonintercourse“ with both countries if American trade rights are not respectedThe third US census occurs, almost doubling the population counted in the first census of 1790By Proclamation announces the U.S. occupation of West Florida as part of the Louisiana PurchaseBy Proclamation acknowledges French offer to stop confiscation of U.S. ships and supplies under terms of Macon’s Bill Number 2Second annual message to CongressVetoes Protestant Episcopal Church incorporation bill, stressing separation of church and state and citing the non-establishment clause of the First AmendmentVetoes a Relief bill, stating it is unconstitutional because it favors a religious establishmentProclamation--Convening an Extra Session of the Congress, which is used to prepare for war with Great BritainThird annual message to Congress, in which he prepares the country for an imminent conflict. Among other things, he requests “that adequate provisions be made for filling the ranks and prolonging the enlistments of the regular troops; for an auxiliary force to be engaged for a more limited term . . .”Sends Special Message to Congress that discusses the Battle of Tippecanoe, which occurred on 11/07/1811Signs An Act to raise an additional Military Force (2 Stat 671) immediately adding ten infantry regiments, two artillery regiments and one regiment of light dragoonsProclamation--Granting Pardon to All Deserters Who Return to DutyU.S. Supreme Court’s New Jersey v. Wilson decision granted specific rights to Indian lands to be passed on to non-Indian ownersSpecial Message providing Congress documents showing that a British agent was engaged in “fomenting disaffection to the constituted authorities of the nation.” The “John Henry” papers, conveyed by Madison may be found from the Library of Congress, linked here.)The first wedding at the White House, Lucy Washington, sister of First Lady Dolley Madison, married Supreme Court Justice Thomas ToddSends Special Message that recommends the immediate passage of a congressional embargo on all vessels in port after news arrives that American ships were sunk by France. The embargo is signed by the President on 04/04/1812 (2 Stat 700)Proclamation- Day of National ThanksgivingVetoes bill on basis of separation of powers, as it called for filling judicial vacancies with Supreme Court justicesFirst Annual State of the Union Address to CongressSigns bill admitting the State of Louisiana to the Union (2 Stat 701)Hamilton’s First Report on Public Credit submitted to CongressRenominated by the Democratic-Republican caucus in CongressSigns first Census Act (1 Stat 101), "Act providing for the enumeration of the inhabitants of the United StatesDelivers Special Message to Congress asking for a consideration of a declaration of warJefferson begins service as Secretary of StateBritish “Orders in Council” were suspended. These orders had prevented neutral ships from trading with France. But news of this action did not reach the US for weeks after war had been declaredSigns “An Act to establish a uniform rule of Naturalization” (1 Stat 103) outlining steps for “a free white person” to become a citizenFollowing Congressional resolutions for war on 06/18/1812, Proclaims that a State of War exists with Great BritainSigns first Patent Act (2 Stat 109), "An Act to promote the progress of useful ArtsProclaims a Day of Prayer in reaction to the violence of the ongoing warSigns Act (1 Stat 112) defining a set of Federal Crimes (on government lands or the high seas) inclulding treason, murder, robbery, piracy, counterfeiting, bribery, etc. Punishments include imprisonment, fines, death and "public whipping."Grants a pardon to those who deserted the war effort if they surrender themselves back to the causeRhode Island ratifies Constitution, the last of the 13 original coloniesFourth Annual State of the Union Message to CongressSigns copyright lawVetoes bill regarding naturalization of immigrants under the assumption that it could be abused. This was a pocket veto, but accompanied by a messageSigns the Residence Act, provided for defining of a “district of territory” to be the permanent seat of the government of the United States, not exceeding 10 miles square, on the banks of the Potomac, (Later the “District of Columbia”). Called for relocating the government to this location no later than the first Monday in December 1800Reelected by comfortable electoral college margin, despite conflict within the Democratic-Republican PartySigns "An Act to regulate trade and intercourse with the Indian Tribes," requiring that traders must be licensed and regulated by the Federal governmentElectoral votes tabulated in Congress“An Act making provision for the [payment of the] Debt of the United States.” Outstanding Revolutionary War debt of the states is assumed by the United StatesSecond Inaugural AddressProclamation—Publishing a treaty of Peace and Friendship Between the United States and the Creek Nations of the IndiansSends Special Session Message that discusses war developments and peace negotiations that occurred on 04/21/1813Proclamation—Warning Against Violation of Treaties Between the United States and the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw IndiansThe United States wins Battle of the Thames against the British and Indian forces, killing Shawnee chief Tecumseh, deconstructing pan-Indian alliances and allowing the U.S. to consolidate control over the NorthwestCapital moves from New York to PhiladelphiaFifth annual message to CongressSecond Annual Address to CongressCalls for a total embargo on exports and a ban on all imports of British originHamilton proposal to Congress for a national bank, Second Report on Public CreditSigns Act (3 Stat 88) laying an embargo on all ships and vessels in the ports and harbours of the United StatesProclamation 1 –Defining the Boundaries of the District of ColumbiaSigns Act admitting the State of Vermont into the Union. The effective date is 03/04/1791First revenue law, creating fourteen revenue districts and placing a tax on all distilled spiritsSpecial message: Vermont admitted as 14th stateProclamation 2—Respecting the Acts of James O’Fallon in Kentucky O’Fallon was “levying an armed force” which “disturbs the public peace.”Proclamation- Ordering the Completion of a Survey to Establish the boundaries of the permanent seat of governmentCommissioners name the territory within the District of Columbia (and the future seat of the Federal Government) as the “City of Washington” in honor of the nation's first PresidentThird Annual State of the Union AddressA confederated force of Indians (Miami, Shawnee, and Delaware) soundly defeat an American military force of 1400 men on the banks of the Wabash River (today Fort Recovery, Ohio). Over 900 American were killed or woundedBill of Rights declared ratifiedThomas Pinckney appointed first United States Minister to EnglandSigns Presidential Succession Act; outlines process for selection and voting of electors; providing for case in which neither President nor Vice-President can serveVetoes Act of Apportionment of Representatives on grounds that it contradicts the language of the Constitution. Veto is sustained in the House on 04/06/1792Kentucky Admitted as a stateProclamation 3b-Cessation of violence and obstruction of Justice in Protest of Liquor LawsThe cornerstone for the President's mansion is laid in Washington D.C.Fourth Annual State of the Union AddressElectors cast ballots; Washington reelected unanimouslyProclamation 3A---Offering Reward for the Capture of Participants in the Burning of a Georgia Cherokee Indian TownSigns Fugitive Slave Act. ("An Act respecting fugitives from justice, and persons escaping from the service of their masters.") The act requires authorities in every state to arrest, secure, and return fugitives from other states when notifiedInaugural AddressNeutrality Proclamation; In precedent-setting act, Washington declared (without Congressional advice or consent) United States neutrality in the War Involving Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, Great Britain, and the United Netherlands against FrancePresident Washington receives France's envoy to the United States, Edmond Charles Genet, who unsuccessfully sought US help in European war and subsequently provoked controversy and scandalSummoned Randolph for explanation of French dispatchParticipates in laying the southeast cornerstone of Capitol Building in federal districtUS relations with Britain worsen after Britain orders confiscation of ships trading with the French in the CaribbeanFifth Annual State of the Union AddressJefferson resigned as Secretary of StateSigns An Act to provide for the Defense of certain Ports and Harbors in the United States (in response to British naval activity)Signs An Act to prohibit the carrying on the Slave Trade from the United States to any foreign place or countryProclamation 5- Respecting Enlisting Men in Kentucky to Invade a Neighboring Nation. Warns against raising forces for the purpose of invading territories of a nation at peace with the United StatesSigns Act to Provide Naval Armament (response to British seizing of US ships)Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Jay, is sent as Special Envoy to attempt to quell the tensions between U.S. and BritainOpponents to Whiskey Tax begin to organize in Mingo Creek, PA (Whiskey rebellion)Proclamation—Cessation of Violence and Obstruction of Justice in protest to liquor laws in PennsylvaniaBattle of Fallen Timbers, Final Battle of Northwest Indian War between the United States troops, led by General Anthony Wayne, and the Nortwest Indian ConfederationProclamation—Authorizing Military Intervention to end violence and Obstruction of Justice in Protest of Liquor Laws in PennsylvaniaJay Treaty Signed included withdrawal of British troops from Northwest Territory (“Treaty of Amity Commerce and Navigation”)Sixth Annual State of the Union AddressSigns An Act authorizing President to call out and station a corps of Militia in the four Western Counties of PennsylvaniaHamilton submits resignation as Secretary of TreasurySigns An Act to establish a uniform rule of Naturalization (repealing act of 1790)Hamilton resignation as Secretary of the Treasury becomes effective11th Amendment to Constitution ratified; restricts the ability of individuals to bring suit against states in federal courtJay Treaty submitted to SenateJay Treaty ratified by SenateProclamation—granting pardon to certain persons formerly engaged in violence and obstruction of Justice in Protest of Liquor laws in Pennsylvania (Whiskey Rebellion)Treaty of Greenville, defining land open to settlement as result of Battle of Fallen Timbers 1794Washington signs Jay TreatyTreaty of San Lorenzo, The United States Treaty with Spain, granting Americans the right to ship goods through the port of New Orleans without having to pay duties to the Spanish GovernmentSeventh Annual State of the Union AddressSpecial Message to the House regarding The Jay Treaty; Washington refuses to provided papers requestedTennessee becomes a stateWashington Farewell Address. ("The nation which indulges toward another an habitual hatred or an habitual fondness is in some degree a slave.") Famously known for emphasizing the importance of national unity and warning against entanglement, partisanship, and regionalismTreaty with Tripoli, US agrees to pay a yearly tribute to Pasha Tripoli in exchange for the peaceful treatment of US shipping in the MediterraneanEighth Annual State of the Union AddressElectors Cast Ballots; John Adams elected PresidentVetoes Bill to reduce Cavalry contingent of army. Veto sustained in the House 03/01/1797John Adams inauguratedCalls the first special session of Congress to begin 05/15/1797 to discuss mounting tensions with FranceAddresses a Joint Session of Congress on current conflicts with France and the difficulty of defending the long U.S. coastline and commercial shipping. In a reply from the Senate this speech was referred to as addressing the “state of the Union.”Nominates three officials (Pinckney, Dana, Marshall) a peace commission to negotiate with France. The Senate confirms the three on 06/05/1797. After Dana declined on grounds of health, Adams nominated Gerry in his place 06/20/1797. The Senate concurred on 6/22/1797. The US commissioners in France were asked for bribes by three persons referred to in dispatches back to the U.S. as “X, Y, and Z.” This came to be called the “XYZ Affair.” (See below 04/03/1798)Message to Congress recommending formation of “a government in the district of the Natchez”—later called the Mississippi TerritorySigns an Act (1 Stat 522) authorizing the President to require state executives to organize, arm, and equip a militia force of 80,000, “in readiness to march at a moment’s warning.”Proclamation 7: Commencement of the US Mint. Foreign coins are no longer legal tenderFirst Annual Address to Congress. “I hold it most certain that permanent tranquillity and order will not soon be obtained. . . . we should make every exertion to protect our commerce and to place our country in a suitable posture of defense. . . The national defense must be provided for as well as the support of Government; but both should be accomplished as much as possible by immediate taxes, and as little as possible by loans.”Exchange of views with the Senate involves agreement on the need for a “mercantile marine and a military marine.”The Eleventh Amendment to the Constitution is ratified, establishing the principle of state sovereign immunity in federal courtAppoints commissioners to negotiate a treaty between the United States and the Cherokee IndiansSpecial Message to Congress relaying a report of an attack by a French ship on an English ship at Charleston Harbor. He sends the information “to shew the propriety and necessity of enabling the Executive authority of the Government to take measures for protecting the citizensSpecial Message relaying to Congress dispatches from France. [Link to text of the dispatch.] The message states that France will no longer consider to be neutral any ship with merchandise from England or that had “touched” at an English portSpecial Message reporting failure of negotiations with France. “I perceive no ground of expectation that the objects of their mission can be accomplished on terms compatible with the safety, the honor, or the essential interests of the nation.”Informs Congress of the details of the XYZ affair, in which France requested bribes from American diplomats, resulting in increased tensions between the two countries. The documents concerning the XYZ affair are available at this linkSigns Act (2 Stat 549) establishing the Mississippi Territory on land acquired from Spain through the Treaty of Madrid in 1795. The law prohibits importing slaves to the territory from outside the United StatesSigns “An Act (2 Stat 553) to establish an Executive department, to be denominated as the Department of the Navy.” The Secretary of the Navy will have responsibility (subject to Presidential direction) for “construction, armament, equipment and employment of vessels of war, as well as all other matters connected with the naval establishment of the United States.”Signs “An Act (2 Stat 558) authorizing the President of the United States to raise a Provisional Army.” In the event of an invasion or “imminent danger of such invasion” the President may call into service up to 10,000 “non-commissioned officers, musicians and privates.” This refers to a Federal Army not the militia forces considered in June 1797The Senate consents to the nomination of Benjamin Stoddert as first Secretary of the NavyNominates George Washington to be Lieutenant-General and Commander in Chief of the Army—but without first receiving Washington’s agreement. The Senate unanimously consents to the appointment on 07/03/1798Alien and Sedition Act 1. Amendments to the Naturalization Act of 1795 (06/18/1798) among other things requires registration of resident aliens; failure to register can result in jail. No alien from a nation at war with the US can become a citizenAlien and Sedition Act 2. The “Act (2 Stat 571) concerning Aliens (06/25/1798) gives the President authority to deport “such aliens as he shall judge dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States.”Alien and Sedition Act 3. The “Act (2 Stat 577) respecting Alien Enemies” (07/06/1798) stated that in the event of actual or threatened invasion, residents in the US from the threatening nation could be “apprehended, restrained, secured and removed, as alien enemies.”Alien and Sedition Act 4. “An Act (2 Stat 596) for the punishment of certain crimes against the United States,” the Sedition Act. This makes it a crime to "write, print, utter, or publish" things "false, scandalous and malicious" or to conspire “to impede the operation of any law” or to prevent an officer of the government from performing his duty; or “advise or attempt to procure any insurrection, riot, unlawful assembly or combination.”Signs an Act (2 Stat 578) of Congress abrogating treaties with FranceSigns an “Act (2 Stat 578) further to protect the Commerce of the United States,” authorizing US vessels “to subdue, seize and take any armed French vessel, which shall be found within the jurisdictional limits of the United States, or elsewhere, on the high seas. . .” This begins the two-year undeclared naval war called the Quasi-WarIn a letter to Adams, Washington accepts the appointment of Commander, to assume the duties when “the Army is in a situation to require my presence.” Adams transmits Washington’s letter to the Senate on 07/17/1798. Washington had previously informed Secretary of War McHenry that he would only accept certain major generals, foremost Alexander Hamilton (who was at odds with Adams)Signs “An Act (2 Stat 597) to lay and collect a direct tax within the United States” taxing dwellings, land, and slaves. The was to be a temporary tax to raise funds for a war with France, which many believed to be coming. The administrative structure (2 Stat 578) to create lists and assess property, empowering commissioners to do the work had been signed on 07/09/1798. This tax generated widespread oppositionSigns “An Act (2 Stat 609) to Augment the Army of the United States,” authorizing and directing in detail the composition of the ArmyAdams nominates 14 to be leading officers in the Army, foremost among them, Alexander Hamilton, to be Inspector GeneralThe Kentucky Resolution specifically attacks the Sedition Act as an unconstitutional invasion of power restricted to the States. This resolution was drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, and articulated a version of the “nullification doctrine.”Second Annual Address to Congress. Remarks on the epidemics of yellow fever sweeping major cities and recommends an increase in Navy personnelThe Virginia Resolution protests the Alien and Sedition Acts for various reasons including that it “is levelled against that right of freely examining public characters and measures. . . the only effectual guardian of every other right.” This Resolution was drafted by James MadisonAbout this date, officials attempted to serve subpoenas to enforce the payment of taxes due in Bucks County, PA. and were met with resistance, eventually violenceNominates as new envoys to France: William Vans Murray, US ambassador to the Netherlands; Oliver Ellsworth, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (who continues in that role); and Patrick Henry, former Governor of Virginia; as envoys to France. The Senate confirms on 02/27/1799. Henry declines and in June 1799 is replaced by William Richardson Davie. These envoys help to end the Quasi-War.Proclamation 9: Calls forth military force to end an armed rebellion (“Fries Rebellion”) by Pennsylvania Dutch farmers in opposition to a new federal property tax. Violence had erupted on 03/06/1799 in Bucks CountyThomas Cooper is convicted of libel under the Alien and Sedition Acts for publishing a broadside critical of AdamsThird Annual Address to Congress. Reports that the rebellion in Pennsylvania has been contained. But notes that “On the one hand, the laws should be executed; on the other, individuals should be guarded from oppression. Neither of these objects is sufficiently assured under the present organization of the judicial department.” Advises that removal of the National government to Washington is now practicableRefers to Congress a “Treaty of Amity” signed between the United States and Prussia on 07/11/1799George Washington dies at Mount Vernon and is buried four days later. Adams officially notifies the House and Senate on 12/19/1799 and receives official condolences from both bodies on 12/23/1799. Link to an account of Washington’s Death at the National Library at Mount VernonSigns “Act (1 Stat 6) for the preservation of peace with the Indian Tribes” providing for punishment for any person resident in the US who communicates with Indian Tribes with the intent of disturbing the peace and tranquillity of the United StatesSigns an Act (1 Stat 7) suspending further enlistment in the Army pursuant to the act of 07/16/1798, “unless war shall break out between the United States and the French Republic.”The House is informed of a naval defeat of the French frigate La Vengeance by the US frigate Constellation on 02/91/1860Signs the Bankruptcy Act of 1800 (1 Stat 19), which is repealed by Congress in 1803Signs an act (1 Stat 56) providing for the removal of the government from Philadelphia to the city of Washington. This includes an allocation of $5,000 to purchase “such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress—presaging the founding of the Library of CongressFederalist Caucus renominates Adams for President and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney for Vice-President. Shortly thereafter the Republicans select Jefferson and BurBegins what has been called a “cabinet purge.” Secretary of War McHenry resigns 05/06/1800. Secretary of State Pickering is dismissed effective 05/12/1800, the first instance of presidential dismissal of a department head. Treasury Secretary Wolcott resigns effective 12/31/1800Signs an Act (1 Stat 58) dividing the territory northwest of the Ohio River (“Northwest Territory”) defining a new part to be called the Indiana TerritorySigns Act (1 Stat 85) specifying that the next session of Congress will be in the City of Washington in the District of Columbia, starting November 17, 1800Proclamation: Pardons the leaders of the Fries Rebellion. Against the advice of every member of his Cabinet, rescuing them from the death sentence of their treason conviction. This angers his fellow Federalists and the Pennsylvania Germans, contributing to Adams’s loss of electoral supportThe Convention of 1800, also known as the Treaty of Mortefontaine, is signed under Napoleon’s rule, transmitted to Senate on 12/15/1800, receiving Senate concurrence (12/18/1800) after modifications to assure compensation for US merchant ships that had been seizedChief Justice Oliver Ellsworth resigns due to poor healthAdams becomes first president to reside in the President’s House (later known as "The Executive Mansion" and "The White House")Elections. Actual voting occurred on multiple days in different jurisdictions. Jefferson and his running mate Aaron Burr defeat Adams in the presidential election. Despite Jefferson’s fear that Adams was trying to establish a monarchyFourth Annual State of the Union Address to Congress. The first in Washington D.C. “May this territory be the residence of virtue and happiness!” There is hope for successful negotiations with FrancePresidential Electors cast ballotsNominates John Marshall to the Supreme Court (replacing Ellsworth). He is confirmed 01/27/1801. The Marshall Court goes on to establish the principle of judicial review and consistently confirmed federal supremacy over the statesElectoral votes counted in Congress; Jefferson and Burr tie because ballots do not distinguish between votes for the offices of president and vice president. Thus, the election is determined in the House of Representatives, one vote per stateSigns the Judiciary Act of 1801 (2 Stat 89) passed by the outgoing Federalist Congress, reorganizing the federal judiciaryJefferson is elected by the House on the 36th ballot after a six-day impasse. This was a major constitutional crisis for the still-young United StatesAdams begins the nomination of Judges to fill positions created by the Judiciary act. This is perceived by Jefferson’s partisans as an attempt by the outgoing Federalists to control the federal court system despite not winning the electionMessage in Reply to Notification of election by the President ElectThe final group of Federalist Judicial nominees are confirmed on this dateInaugural Address. First President to take the oath of office in Washington, DC. Walks the short distance from his boarding house to the Capitol. The speech includes a succinct statement of his governing principles. Observes that “every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle” and the rights of minorities must be protected. “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists.” Speaks of the “right of Americans to think freely and to speak and write what they think.”Proclamation- Building Regulations for the District of Columbia. Temporarily suspending requirement that houses in Washington City be built of brick or stone in order to attract people who could not afford such structuresPardons David Brown who had been convicted and imprisoned for seditionPardons James Thomson Callender who had been convicted and fined for seditionTripoli declares war, Yusuf Karamini, pasha of Tripoli, declares war on the United States by symbolically cutting down the flagpole at the U.S. consulateSends naval vessels to the Mediterranean in response to TripoliJefferson visits Martha Washington at Mount Vernon. She is reported to have called the visit "the most painful occurrence of her lifeHeld public reception at the White House—first of many for 19th Century presidentsLetter to the President of the Senate and to the Speaker of the House of Representatives Regarding the President’s Annual MessageFirst State of the Union Message. First president to provide State of the Union in written form, not spoken. Precedent continues until Woodrow WilsonThe United States and Britain conclude a convention regarding the treaty of 1794Signs Act establishing the Library of Congress (1 Stat 128); no map to be taken from the Library by any person, nor any book except by the President and Vice President and members of CongressSigns Act (1 Stat 129) authorizing equipping and arming vessels to protect commerce, and authorizes the president to grant commissions to “private armed vessels” to capture Tripolitan shipsSigns Repeal of Judiciary Act of 1801Signs “An Act fixing the military peace establishment of the United States” (1 Stat 132); reducing the size of the army, detailing compensation and recruitment of soldiers, authorizing a corps of engineers to be stationed at West Point and constitute a military academySigns “An Act to repeal the Internal Taxes” (1 Stat 148) ending excise taxes on stills and distilled spirits, and many other thingsSigns “Act to establish an uniform rule of Naturalization and to repeal the acts heretofore passed on that subject” (1 Stat 153). Period of residency for citizenship reduced to five years instead of fourteen. Applies to “any free white person” who takes oath of allegiance to the Constitution; renounces any titles; and has been “a man of good moral character.”Negotiations concluded concerning separation of Mississippi Territory from Georgia's Western TerritorySigns the Judiciary Act of 1802 (“An Act to amend the Judicial System of the United States," 1 Stat 156). Establishes that Supreme Court meets in Washington D.C.; defines Circuits, that the Supreme Court decision overrules Circuit Courts; duties and powers of marshalsSigns the Enabling Act (1 Stat 173), establishing procedures for territories organized under the Ordinance of 1787 to become a state. Signals to Ohio territory how to become a stateSigns Act incorporating Washington as a cityWilliam Callender begins publishing articles in the Richmond Recorder alleging that Jefferson had several children with a slave, Sally Hemings. These reports are deniedSecond State of the Union MessageAppointed James Monroe as minister to France and Spain, with Robert R. Livingston serving as minister plenipotentiary to France and Charles Pinckney serving as minister plenipotentiary to Spain as wellConfidential Message to Congress requesting a $2,500 appropriation to support exploration of commerce with Indian tribes. Calls for encouraging tribes to abandon hunting and take up agriculture; encouraging trading with Indians. “An intelligent officer, with ten or twelve chosen men, fit for the enterprise and willing to undertake it, might explore the whole line, even to the Western Ocean. . . “ This becomes the Lewis and Clark expeditionOhio becomes the 17th state; sign act (2 Stat 201) providing for the the application of all US laws within OhioMarbury v. Madison decided by the Supreme Court. Advances the principle that the Supreme Court can declare an act of Congress void if it is inconsistent with the Constitution. But Marshall’s decision denied Federalist appointee Marbury his judicial commissionSpain opens New Orleans to American MerchantsLouisiana Purchase Treaty Signed in Paris. Napoleon had lost an army in Santo Domingo, and lost interest in trying to maintain a French foothold in North America. Jefferson recognized that he lacked Constitutional authority for the purchaseCommissions Commodore Edward Preble Commander of a Navy Squadron sent to fight TripoliConfidential Message to Congress Regarding the Lewis and Clark ExpeditionThird State of the Union Message: Among other topics he explains the circumstance that led to the Louisiana Purchase TreatyMessage to the Senate Transmitting the Louisiana Purchase TreatySigns Act enabling the President to take possession of the territories (1 Stat 245) ceded by France to the US (Louisiana Purchase); provides for the territory to be governed so as to protect the inhabitants in the “free enjoyment of their liberty, property and religion.”Signs Act authorizing borrowing money (1 Stat 245) necessary to make the Louisiana PurchaseThe Twelfth Amendment passed by Congress and referred to the States. Modifies the electoral college requiring separate votes for president and vice president. This eliminates having the candidate of the opposition party end up as vice president; sharply reduces prospects of a tie in the electoral college with the decision made by the HouseSpecial message to Congress on the Wreck of the USS Philadelphia in TripoliThe House votes to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase, at the urging of President Jefferson. Chase was accused of promoting his own political agenda as a judgeSigns Louisiana Territory ActLewis and Clark expedition begins ascent of Missouri RiverProclamation- Establishing the Mobile District and Designation of Fort Stoddert as a Port of Entry12th Amendment ratified upon vote of the legislature of New Hampshire. This Amendment modified the working of the electoral college to prevent tie votes; requires separate votes for President and Vice-PresidentHamilton and Burr duel, Alexander Hamilton is wounded and dies the next dayFourth State of the Union MessageElection Day 1804, The fifth presidential election is held under the auspices of the new Twelfth Amendment. Jefferson wins with George Clinton as Vice-President; defeats Federalist Charles PinckneyPresidential electors cast ballotsMichigan is formed as a territory in part of what had previously been the Indiana Territory to take effect 06/30/1805Electoral College votes tabulated by CongressThe Senate failed to reach the 2/3 majority required to convict Justice Samuel Chase of charges brought in the House a year earlierSecond Inaugural AddressLewis and Clark reach the Junction of the Missouri and Yellowstone RiversU.S. Marines and Arab Mercenaries Capture Derna, the Capitol of TripoliTreaty of Peace and Amity in Tripoli was signed, effectively ending the Tripolitan WarBritish seize ships in neutral ports. The British invoke the “Rule of 1756” holding that Britain would not trade with neutrals that were trading with a British enemyAaron Burr arrives in New Orleans amid rumors he plans to establish a separate countryLewis and Clark reach Continental Divide, headwaters of both Missouri and Columbia RiversBritish offer to negotiated for peace, made on 11/04/1812, was received in Washington DCIn Special Message, transmits British offer to Congress, while stressing that “vigorous preparations for carrying on the war can in no respect impede the progress to a favorable result . . .”In Message to the Senate, nominates George W. Campbell to be Secretary of the Treasury to replace Albert Gallatin who had resigned effective that day. Gallatin nominated to be Minister to the peace negotiations together with John Quincy Adams, James A. Bayard, Henry Clay, and Jonathan Russell. Senators had objected to Gallatin holding both offices. The Senate consented in all cases the next daySigns a series of bills to strengthen the military: Activating regiments previously authorized (3 Stat 96); Immediately raising and funding three regiments of riflemen (3 Stat 96); ten additional companies of rangers (3 Stat 98); receiving into service volunteer soldiers entitled to the same pay as regular soldiersCalls for immediate repeal of trade embargo with neutral nations following collapse of Napoleon’s European empireLed by General Andrew Jackson, a coalition of U.S. military and Indians ( Cherokees and Lower Creek) engaged the Upper Creek Red Sticks at the village of Tehopeka at Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River in what is today central Alabama. The Red Sticks were slaughtered, and this resulted directly in the surge of white settlers into the territoryWashington, D.C. invaded by the British, who set fire to the White House. Dolley Madison saves the Lansdowne portrait of George Washington that still hangs in the White House todayProclamation—Calling All Citizens to Unite in Defense of the District of ColumbiaAmerican victory at the Battle of Lake Champlain, the last great naval battle of the War of 1812. Perhaps a positive factor in concluding the Treaty of GhentSixth annual message to Congress. Discusses at length the war effort. Points to “achievements which have given new luster to the American arms.” Notes that on Lake Champlain, the action “issued in the capture of the whole of the enemy’s ships.” Points out that expenses exceed revenues, and calls for Congress “to take up without delay” provision of funds and suppliesFrancis Scott Key writes “The Star-Spangled Banner” after watching the defense of Ft. McHenry in Baltimore HarborResignation of the Secretary of War, William ArmstrongNominates James Monroe as Secretary of WarResignation of Secretary of the Treasury, George W. CampbellMassachusetts legislature passed resolution calling for a gathering of the New England states to deliberate further actions and resentments against the government specifically lack of federal aid and the overall increasing burden of the war on these states that greatly opposed it yet made up the bulk of the defenseSigns a Joint Resolution ( 3 Stat 246) authorizing the purchase of the library of Thomas Jefferson for use of the CongressSigns Joint Resolution (3 Stat 536) declaring Illinois admitted as 21st stateThe Panic of 1819 begins and is the first widespread financial crisis in the U.S. Many factors contribute to this, including overexpansion of credit post-War of 1812, low prices of European imports, and the collapse of the export market, especially cotton prices, starting in the month of JanuaryRep. James Tallmadge Jr. (NY) offers two amendments to a Missouri Statehood Bill that catalyze a debate on slavery. One amendment would restrict further slavery in Missouri, and the other would set a timeline for freeing enslaved persons already in the territorySigning in Washington City of the Adams-Onis Treaty with Spain, (also known as the Transcontinental Treaty, and ratified in 1821), which ceded Florida to the U.S., renounced claims to Oregon, gained recognition of Spanish sovereignty over Texas, and established the boundary line between the U.S. and New SpainSigns the Steerage Act of 1819, (3 Stat 488) the first U.S. law regulating the conditions of travelers arriving and departing by sea. Required U.S. customs agents to produce a written manifesto of the passengers’ demographics and set the stage for quotas and selective bans of ethnic groupsSigns an act, (3 Stat 489) authorizing the people of the Alabama territory to create a constitution and state government for the admission of the state into the UnionSigns "An Act making provision for the civilization of the Indian tribes adjoining the frontier settlements" (38 Stat 516). ". . . for introducing among [the Indian tribes] the habits and arts of civilization. . ."Signs an act (3 Stat 523), authorizing the President to take control of East and West Florida, and establish a temporary government. This act is subsequently amended repeatedly regarding settlement of the territorySigns an act, (3 Stat 532), authorizing the Navy to patrol and implement more control to combat the importation of slaves after its abolition, which was attempted to return African slaves who had been brought to the U.S. illegally after the abolition of the slave trade in 1808McCulloch v. Maryland establishes a precedent that states cannot tax federal agencies. The Supreme Court unanimously rules that the Necessary and Proper Clause grants the federal government implied powers and underscores the supremacy of the federal government over those of the states. State governments had proposed taxes on the Bank of the United States in reaction against the Bank recalling loans on land purchased from the Federal governmentThird tour to Southern and Western states—Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, IndianaWrites to Secretary of War Calhoun to authorize financing for an expedition to the mouth of the Yellowstone RiverRep. Richard Mentor Johnson as head of special House committee delivered the Report of the House Committee to investigate the causes of the Washington invasion earlier that yearResignation of Secretary of the Navy William JonesNew England delegates meet at the Hartford Convention to protest Madison’s involvement in the War of 1812 and proposes Constitutional amendments including: the end of naturalization of immigrants, and enacting a limit to only one presidential term. (Link to image of contemporary cartoon mocking the Hartford Convention)The United States and Great Britain sign the Treaty of Ghent in EuropeThe Report of the Hartford Convention is released, formally protesting war involvementAmerican victory in Battle of New Orleans helps build reputation of future president Andrew JacksonSigns bill allowing the president to call up 40,000 state troops (3 Stat 193), but Congress limits this by authorizing troops to serve only in their home statesVetoes national bank bill that proposed to “incorporate the subscribers to the Bank of the United States of America” because he didn’t see it as reliable or sufficientSigns law (3 Stat 195) authorizing the sum of $23,950 for the purchase of Thomas Jefferson’s Library for the use of CongressSigns Act to Prohibit trading with the enemy; (3 Stat 195) requires passport to cross the frontier; authorizes the president to use the military if necessary to prohibit tradeProclaims the ratification of the Treaty of Ghent, ending the War of 1812Recommends a declaration of war between the United States and AlgiersSigns act to Declare War on Algiers, ( 3 Stat 230) resulting in deployment of the navy to the MediterraneanSeventh annual message to Congress finalizing the war and asking for domestic and financial improvements including a national currency, a larger militia, tariffs, and a university; most of which he receives in 1816Presents a peace treaty between the United States and Algiers concluded on 06/30/1815 to the SenateThe Senate does advise and consent to the ratification of the treaty of 06/30/1815U.S. Supreme Court’s Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee decision gives federal courts the power to review state court interpretation of the ConstitutionSigns Act chartering the Second Bank of the United StatesApproves Congress' enactment of the first tariff (3 Stat 310) on all imported goods, intended to protect U.S. manufacturingApproves a Joint Resolution (3 Stat 342) authorizing the President to employ “a skilful assistant” in the corps of engineersSecretary of State James Monroe wins 1816 presidential electionEighth annual message to Congress. Urges reorganization of the militia; establishment of a university within the District; enhancement of the office of Attorney-General; developing a system of roads and canalsIndiana is admitted to the Union. Authorization to form a constitution and state government had been granted on 04/19/1816 (3 Stat 289 )Approves Joint Resolution (3 Stat 400) authorizing the President to employ John Trumbull “to compose and execute four paintings commemorative of the most important events of the American Revolution” for placing in the capitolSigns Act (3 Stat 348) authorizing the formation of a state in the “western part of the Mississippi territory.”Vetoes the “Bonus Bill” for internal improvementsInaugural Address. “In contemplating what we have still to perform, the heart of every citizen must expand with joy when he reflects how near our government has approached to perfection; that in respect to it we have no essential improvement to make; that the great object is to preserve it in the essential principles and features which characterize it, and that is to be done by preserving the virtue and enlightening the minds of the people ..."Signs the Rush-Bagot Pact, a treaty between the United States and Great Britain to demilitarize the Great Lakes. This marked the beginning of Anglo-American cooperation and the start of Monroe’s presidential actionsAuthorizes three diplomats to go to South America to gather information about the governments in a letter to the acting Secretary of State. The commissioners set sail on August 24th and returning in July 1818“Tours” eastern states and territories including Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Maine, Michigan, Vermont, and Ohio. Promotes national unity between Democratic-Republicans and Federalists. The tour has been regarded as the beginning of the “Era of Good Feelings,” a period characterized by a sense of national purpose and a desire for unity among Americans after the War of 1812The First Seminole War begins after U.S. authorities attempt to capture runaway slaves living among the Seminole Indians. The Seminole people had begun hiding runaway slaves who escaped southern plantations. African descendants and Native Americans fought and won repeatedly against the United States military until Florida was forcibly acquired from Spain in 1819First Annual Message to Congress where he stresses the importance of avoiding actions that would invite European involvement in the Americas. This requires neutrality with respect to South American colonial revolts against SpainSigns resolution, (3 Stat 472) admitting Mississippi to the UnionSigns an act to abolish internal duties (3 Stat 401), repealing war-time taxes of 1813With Monroe’s agreement, Secretary of War John Calhoun directs General Andrew Jackson to confront the Seminole Indians. “. . . [A]dopt the necessary measures to terminate a conflict which it has ever been the desire of the President. . .to avoid; but which is now made necessary by their Settled hostilities.” [Andrew Jackson Papers, vol IV, p. 163.] In a letter of 12/28/1817, Monroe himself authorized Jackson to take action against the SeminolesGeneral Jackson writes Secretary Calhoun to acknowledge receipt of his order of 12/16/1817In a Special Message to Congress, announces the occupation of Amelia Island (on the east coast of Florida) which had become a haven for pirates, and allegedly a haven for Venezuelan revolutionaries. States that Spain was unaware of these activities or “utterly unable to prevent them.”General Jackson writes Monroe about his plans "to crush the hostility of the Seminoles, and there [sic] adherents."Signs Congressional Joint Resolution, (3 Stat 475) directing the public and distribution of the journal and proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of the United StatesSigns an act, (3 Stat 428) authorizing the people of the Illinois territory to create a constitution and state government for the admission of the state into the UnionProclamation of the Rush-Bagot AgreementExecution ordered by General Jackson of two British citizens, Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert Ambrister. Both were convicted by a military tribunal of assisting US enemies in the Seminole War. This caused a diplomatic controversy and was later criticized by a report of a House Committee on Military AffairsWithout clear authority from the President, Jackson invades and occupies Pensacola, forcing the Spanish to seek refuge in Havana. That is, Jackson commits an act of war against SpainTour of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina; halted after receiving word of Jackson's actions in seizing PensacolaSigning of the Anglo-American Convention (also known as the Treaty of 1818) between Great Britain and the United States, which established the boundary between the U.S. and Canada, fishing rights, and an economic intervention on the issue of American slavesAppoints Smith Thompson as Secretary of the Navy. Under Thompson, the Navy was responsible for enforcing the prohibition of the international slave tradeSecond Annual Message to CongressThird Annual Message to CongressSigns an act (3 Stat 608) admitting Alabama as 22nd stateSigns an act, (3 Stat 544) admitting Maine as a free state into the UnionSigns the Missouri Compromise (3 Stat 545). The Act attempted to maintain a legislative balance between the pro-slavery South and anti-slavery North by delineating which states would be free and which would not. Maine would only be granted admission into the Union if Missouri was admitted as a slaveholding state. Monroe supported the CompromiseIn a Special Message to the House, points out that under an agreement reached 04/24/1802 with the State of Georgia, there was agreement to "extinguish . . .the Indian title to all lands within [Georgia]." Requests funding adequate to negotiate a treaty with the Creek Indians to return property to citizens of GeorgiaSigns the Tenure of Office Act (“An Act to limit the term of office of certain officers. . . “ 3 Stat 582) limiting the term in office of many appointees to four years, unless they were reappointedFourth Annual Message to CongressElection period ends. Monroe wins 98.3% of the Electoral College vote after running effectively unopposed. The lack of opposition further reflected the “era of good feelings.”Signs and proclaims the Adams-Onis Treaty (Transcontinental Treaty) that had been concluded on 02/22/1819. By Special Message asks for Congressional implementationSigns the Military Establishment Act, (3 Stat 615) , which aims to reduce and fix the military peace establishment of the United States, by reducing the Army’s manpower by 40 percent. Foreign policy shifts away intimidation and toward commerce and negotiationSigns "an Act for the relief of the purchaser of public lands. . . " (3 Stat 612) permitted land purchasers to relinquish rights to a part of the land purchased with all payments on that relinquished land applied to any debts on other lands the purchaser retains. Interest on the relinquished land will be discharged. (See entry above 01/1819, Panic of 1819)Signs an act (3 Stat 637) implementing the Adams-Onis Treaty concluded on 02/22/1819Second Inaugural AddressDuring the year 1821, Sequoyah completed the development of a written Cherokee language based on symbols representing spoken syllablesProclaims admission of Missouri as a stateFifth Annual Message to CongressIn a Special Message to Congress proposes recognition of Independent Republics of Central and South AmericaSigns an act, (3 Stat 654) establishing a territorial government in FloridaSigns act for the relief of purchasers of public landsSigns an act, (3 Stat 678) providing money for diplomatic missions to Central and South America, should it be properVetoes Cumberland Road Appropriation Bill, which would have provided for yearly improvements to the highway with federal funding, as he believed it was unconstitutional for the federal government to become involved in projects that warranted attention by state governments. This was Monroe’s first and only presidential vetoProclaims a Navigation and Commerce Treaty with France signed on the same date by Secretary of State Adams. This suspends the imposing of taxes based the capacity of French ships and vesselsSixth Annual Message to CongressSigns an Act (3 Stat 750) establishing a territorial government for all the land ceded by SpainSigns an Act (3 Stat 788) to establish a National armory on "the western waters."Seventh Annual Message to Congress articulates the “Monroe Doctrine.” States that the United States would recognize existing colonies in the Western Hemisphere, close the Western Hemisphere to future colonization, would not interfere in the internal affairs of or wars between European powers, and would interpret any attempt by a European power to control any nation in the Western Hemisphere as a hostile act against the United States. The Monroe Doctrine was met with a positive reception in CongressIn a Special Message to Congress, addresses the fact that the US have not yet "at their own expense extinguish for the use of Georgia the Indian title to all the lands within the State. . . " This is not for lack of trying, and should not be done by force. "An attempt to remove them by force would, in my opinion, be unjust." The best outcome would be for the tribes "to remove beyond the limits of our present States and Territories."Signs the General Survey Act (4 Stat 22), which authorized the president to order surveys of routes for roads and canals of national importanceSigns into law the Tariff of 1824 (4 Stat 25), which supported local manufactures and goods by raising protective tariff rates for such products as glass, lead, iron, and wool. Meant to protect American manufacturing, instead of cheaper British commodities. Gave a source of revenue for the federal government as well as support from northeastern manufacturing statesGeneral Lafayette begins a farewell tour of the United States that takes him to every state. He departed for his return to France on 09/06/1825Eighth Annual Message to CongressProclaims the Russo-American Treaty of 1824 (also called the Convention of 1824) which had been signed in St. Petersburg 04/17/1824. The treaty consolidates US claims to the Oregon territory and provides for undisturbed ocean access by US citizens and subjectsIn a Special Message to Congress recommends "removal of the Indian tribes from the lands which they now occupy. . . to the country lying westward and northward thereof, within our acknowledged boundaries. . . Experience has clearly demonstrated that, in their present state, it is impossible to incorporate them in such masses, in any form whatever, into our system . . . Their degradation and extermination will be inevitable.”In Special Message to the Senate, submits a treaty with the Creek Indians (concluded on 02/12/1825) in which they agreed to surrender their remaining lands. This was later ratified by the Senate on 03/07/1825. The treaty was subsequently recognized as fraudulent and replaced in 1826 by the Treaty of WashingtonSigns an Act ( 4 Stat 101) confirming the incorporation of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company, and authorizing the company to extend the canal into the District of Columbia, subject to an investigation to be ordered by the PresidentElectoral votes are counted. John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and William H. Crawford are all candidates. All are “Democrat-Republicans.” Andrew Jackson receives a plurality of the popular vote (41%) and a plurality of the electoral college (38%). However, no presidential candidate wins a majority of the electoral college. As a result, the presidential election is inconclusive. Crawford, Secretary of the Treasury, was the last candidate to be selected by a Congressional Caucus. The others hAs specified in the Twelfth Amendment, the House of Representatives holds a contingent election to elect a president. Only the top three candidates in numbers of electoral votes are eligible for the contingent election. These candidates are John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, and William H. CrawfordSpeaker of the House and former presidential candidate, Henry Clay, formally endorses John Quincy Adams for the contingent electionThe Columbian Observer (Philadelphia) publishes a letter, purported to be from an anonymous member of Congress, alleging that Henry Clay reached a bargain with John Quincy Adams in exchange for his support. This bargain was described as “one of the most disgraceful transactions that ever covered with infamy the republican ranks.”A letter from Henry Clay states that he thinks the letter of 01/25/1825 is a forgery; or that the author is “a base and infamous calumniator. . .”Adams is elected President by the House of Representatives with 54% of votes. The Senate majority is comprised of Jackson & Crawford Republicans; in the House, Adams Republicans are the largest partyReply of the President Elect to Notification of Election. If the Constitution permitted, he would submit to a second popular vote. Instead he hopes for “generous support from my fellow-citizens.”Inaugural Address. “There still remains one effort of magnanimity, one sacrifice of prejudice and passion, to be made by the individuals throughout the nation who have heretofore followed the standards of political party. It is that of discarding every remnant of rancor against each other, of embracing as countrymen and friends, and of yielding to talents and virtue alone that confidence which in times of contention for principle was bestowed only upon those who bore the badge of party communion.”Appoints former presidential aspirant Henry Clay as Secretary of State. But he retains Monroe’s postmaster general, secretary of the navy, and Attorney General (William Wirt). Generally, J. Q. Adams is very restrained in using executive appointments in a way that might build political supportErie Canal completed. This was an undertaking entirely by the State of New York, but Federal officials took note of the success of the project and its revenue potentialFirst Message on the State of the Union. Proposes broad range of internal improvements, contrary to the views of his three predecessors. Notes that in March 1824 the Treasury purchased shares in the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Co. Notes a study under way for a canal from the Chesapeake Bay to the Ohio River. Accepts invitation to send delegates to Pan American Congress in Panama which subsequently proves controversial in the SenateIn a Special Message to the Senate, Adams states that he has confidentially provided requested information about the “congress at Panama,” and “leaves to the Senate” a decision to make them public nonethelessSenator John Randolph (VA) objects to the Adams message of 02/16/1826 as impugning the motives of the Senate. Randolph says he has been defeated by the combination of “the puritan with the blackleg.” The last phrase, regarded as an insulting reference to the coalition of Clay and Adams, resulted in a duel between Randolph and Clay. Neither man was woundedThomas Jefferson and John Adams both die on this day from natural causes on 50th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of IndependenceThe final date of voting in 1826 Elections. Both Houses of Congress have pro-Jackson majoritiesConvention with Britain concluded at London, settles indemnity under the Treaty of Ghent (which ended the War of 1812). Provides compensation for “upwards of 2,400 slaves” who had been freed (“carried away”) during that conflictSecond Annual State of the Union MessageAddresses Congress on the rights of the Creek IndiansProclamation to close trading ports to the BritishSt. Petersburg Convention to the Ghent Treaty is ProclaimedAnnual Message on State of the Union. Adams enumerates many surveys underway for roads and canals. Called again for creation of a naval academy. Calls for Congress to manage the disposal of public landsIn a narrow vote, the House of Representatives voted (105-94) in favor of the Tariff Act of 1828. This is also popularly known as the “Tariff of Abominations.” The goal was to protect northern and western agricultural products. It created a 38% tax on certain imported goods and a 45% tax on certain imported raw materials. However, Southerners felt threatened by this tariff because they were charged more for European importsSigns the Tariff Act of 1828 (“Tariff of Abominations”)Supreme Court Associate Justice Robert Trimble dies as presidential elections approachedVoters Cast Ballots. Andrew Jackson (Democrats) defeats incumbent John Quincy AdamsVice President John C. Calhoun—who ran for re-election on a ticket with Jackson, not Adams—anonymously writes a pamphlet entitled, South Carolina Exposition and Protest. In this pamphlet, he urged the nullification of the Tariff of 1828 (See entry of 05/19/1828) within South CarolinaDelivers the State of the UnionNominates John J. Crittenden as Associate Justice (replacing Trimble who had died in August). Jackson’s allies in the Senate block Crittenden's confirmation in order to give the appointment to JacksonAndrew Jackson is sworn in as the seventh President of the United States. Adams does not attend Jackson's InaugurationLetter to the Creek Indians in which Jackson (“your father”) advises that the Creek move beyond the MississippiProclamation 38—Suspending Discriminating Duties of Tonnage and Import on Austrian VesselsVan Buren to go over boundary changes with MexicoFirst Annual State of the Union Message; includes language objecting to Federal appropriations for projects benefitting a single state; argues for limiting terms in office and encouraging “rotation.”Tensions between Jackson and Calhoun; Calhoun suggests South Carolina should annul the cotton tariffVetoes Maysville Road bill with the objection that the project did not involve sufficiently general benefitsSigns the Indian Removal ActSigns Appropriations Act (1 Stat 427) providing funds for "opening, grading, and bridging" the Cumberland Road in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois under the direction of superintendents appointed by the PresidentVeto message of a bill to "authorize a subscription of stock in the Washington Turnpike Road Company" with reference to veto on 05/27/1830 of the Maysville Road Bill."Proclamation—Notice of Public Land Sales in the State of LouisianaProclamation 40—Suspending Discriminating Duties of Tonnage and Import on Vessels of the Grand Dukedom of OldenburgProclamation 41—Opening States Ports to British Vessels From Certain British PossessionsSecond Annual State of the Union MessageVetoed (by pocket veto) bills dealing with lighthouse and beacons, issuing stocks for canal-building internal improvementsProclamation 42- Ordering Persons to remove from Public Lands in ArkansasSeminole War Correspondence Published at direction of Vice President Calhoun. The correspondence documented their disagreements and further alienated Jackson and CalhounIn Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, the Supreme Court ruled that the Cherokees were not a “foreign nation” (rather, “domestic dependent nations” and therefore did not have standing under Article III of the Constitution to bring claims against GeorgiaWives of cabinet members refuse to socialize with Peggy Eaton, the wife of the Secretary of War. This tension leads Jackson to engineer a mass reshuffling of his cabinet. John Eaton resigns 04/09/1831; Martin Van Buren, Secretary of State, resigns 04/11/1831; Samuel Ingham, Secretary of the Treasury and John Branch, Secretary of the Navy resign 04/19/1831. Jackson requested the resignation of Attorney General John Berrien 06/15/1831. Referred to subsequently as the Petticoat Affair or Peggy Eaton AffairNat Turner leads slave rebellion in Virginia; local officials ask for federal military assistance, and federal troops deployed without the issuance of a proclamation by the President as specified in statutes of 1795 and 1807. Rebellion crushed by 09/03/1831First presidential nominating convention; Anti-Masonic Convention, in Baltimore; resulted not in a “platform” but in a lengthy document suggesting what would become programmatic platforms. The “Address to the People” called for “enlightened exercise of the right of suffrage,” and noted that Jackson was a masonThird Annual State of the Union MessageNational Republican Party convention, which did not produce a platform but issued an “Address” critical of the Jackson Administration. Nominates Henry Clay of KentuckyBy Special Message, recommends Congress to appoint commissioners with authority to oversee the “speedy migration” of Indians “within the settled portion of the United States” to “the country beyond the Mississippi. . .”Supreme Court decides Worcester v. Georgia The Court had held that Georgia did not have authority to regulate relationships between its citizens and members of the Cherokee Nation. This was because the Cherokee had a treaty with the US, and Georgia law had no force. Jackson had defended states rights in dealing with Indian tribes and was reported to have privately refused to enforce the Court rulingDemocratic party holds its first presidential nominating convention to nominate Andrew Jackson for second term and former Secretary of State Martin Van Buren as vice president. Did not produce a platformVetoes bill reauthorizing Second Bank of the United States. The Bank’s supporters proposed reauthorization earlier than necessary believing this would be a good election issue. The veto message is unusually long and important for many reasons, including the firm assertion that the President may veto legislation based on policy differences alone. Jackson also asserts his belief that questions of constitutionality may be appropriately judged by presidents, not simply by the Supreme Court. The veto was not Signs Tariff ActWins reelection; white male suffrage generally held throughout the US without any property requirementsSouth Carolina Ordinance of Nullification, asserting the right to nullify congressional acts involving duties and imposts on the importation of foreign commodities No other states join South CarolinaFourth Annual State of the Union MessagePresidential electors cast ballotsPocket Veto of “An act providing for the final settlement of the claims of States for interest on advances to the United States made during the last war.” Jackson objects to the way the legislation calculated interest dueNullification Proclamation rejecting the idea that any state can nullify a federal law. Such a principle would make the Constitution meaningless. Jackson promises to execute the laws by all constitutional means, including a recourse to forceJohn C. Calhoun of South Carolina resigns as Vice PresidentIn a very long Special Message to the House and Senate, calls attention to (and quotes extensively) the South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification. Notes that "it appears. . .that the State authorities are actively organizing their military resources. . . " Warns against allowing the people of a single State to take actions that would "hazard the liberties and happiness" of all others in the Union. Calls for enactment of laws authorizing the President to enforce Federal law in the face of State resistanceElectoral College Votes counted in Congress“Force Bill” signed (2 Stat 632). Echoing the 1795 “Calling forth the Militia” Act, this response to South Carolina nullification defiance authorizes the president to use “any means” to disperse unlawful uses of forceSigns Compromise Tariff Act (2 Stat 629). Reduces tariff rates gradually until from 1833-1842; responds to Southern unhappiness about tariffs of 1828. This has also been called "the Force Bill"Second Inaugural AddressSouth Carolina rescinds nullification ordinanceCommissions Edmund Roberts, a special agent of the United states to negotiate commercial trade and treaties with several Asian governmentsMoves Treasury Secretary McLane to be Secretary of State after McLane refuses to transfer Bank of the United States deposits to state banks. Appoints William Duane as Treasury SecretaryFirst Presidential Train Ride, 12 miles from Ellicott’s Mills to Baltimore, MDOrders plans for removing federal deposits from Bank of the United States. Provoked famous cartoon, “King Andrew the First.”Message Read to the Cabinet on Removal of the Public Deposits “Viewing it as a question of transcendent importance, both in the principles and consequences it involves, the President could not, in justice to the responsibility which he owes to the country, refrain from pressing upon the Secretary of the Treasury his view of the considerations which impel to immediate action.”Removes Duane as Treasury Secretary when he refuses to transfer Bank of the United States funds. Replaces him, as a recess appointment, with Roger B. Taney (previously serving as Attorney General). Taney followed Jackson’s instructionsFifth Annual State of the Union MessageSenate requests a copy of the Message read to the cabined on 9/18/1933Pocket vetoes “Act to appropriate for a limited time the proceeds of the sales of the public lands of the United States and for granting lands to certain states.” But nonetheless issues a lengthy Veto Message. “The bill before me begins with an entire subversion of every one of the compacts by which the United States became possessed of their Western domain, and treats the subject as if they never had existence. . . “Message declining to comply with Senate request of 12/11/1833 for document on removing Treasury funds from Bank of United States. “I feel constrained, therefore, by a proper sense of my own self-respect, and of the rights secured by the constitution to the Executive branch of the Government, to decline a compliance with your request.”Senator Henry Clay introduces resolution condemning Jackson’s actions concerning Bank of the USSenate passes Resolution of Censure against Jackson: “That the President, in the late Executive proceedings in relation to the public revenue, has assumed upon himself authority and power not conferred by the constitution and laws but in derogation of both.”Message to the Senate Protesting Censure Resolution. In response to this message, the Senate ordered (05/07/1834) that this Message not be entered on the JournalDeath of General Lafayette noted by Executive Order 46Senate rejects Taney as Secretary of the TreasurySigns Act (1 Stat 729) to regulate trade with Indian tribes and to preserve peace on the frontiers. Designates US territory west of the Mississippi that is not part of Missouri, Louisiana or the territory of Arkansas is "the Indian Country." Trading is to be regulated by the commissioner of Indian Affairs. Prohibits sale of alcoholic beverages to IndiansSigns Act establishing Department [sic] of Indian Affairs; act also set aside part of Arkansas Territory for Indians. The office was transferred to the Department of the Interior in 1849Signs Act authorizing Secretary of the Navy to make experiments for the safety of the steam engineSixth Annual State of the Union Message. Jackson announces that all national debt will be repaid as of 01/01/1835; includes explanation of his pocket veto of Wabash River internal improvements billAttempted assassination of Jackson by Richard Lawrence fails when his pistols misfireCommittee appointed by Senate to investigate whether Senator Poindexter of Mississippi was involved in assassination attemptVeto of “Act to authorize the Secretary of the Treasury to compromise the claims allowed by the commissioners under the treaty with the King of the Two Sicilies, [sic] concluded October 14, 1832.” Jackson argues that the act is inconsistent with the separation of powersDemocratic Convention in Baltimore. The convention was held long before the election to prevent opposition to Jackson’s chosen successor, Martin Van Buren. Van Buren was nominated unanimously on the first ballotAlexis de Tocqueville published the first volume of Democracy in AmericaSeventh Annual State of the Union Message; Jackson suggests prohibiting distribution of abolitionist literature by mail in the SouthMessage to Congress informs of a bequest by James Smithson for an institution “for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.”Nominates Roger B. Taney as Chief Justice of the Supreme CourtSecond Seminole War begins in Florida with attack led by Osceola on troops led by Major Francis Dade (“Dade Massacre"). This was the longest and most costly war between Native Americans and the United StatesNew Echota Treaty with representatives of the Cherokee Tribe who agree to move Cherokees west of the Mississippi to land where they will be self-governingTexas declares independenceFall of the AlamoSenate confirms Taney as Chief JusticeSenate ratifies New Echota Treaty calling for removal of Cherokees west of the Mississippi. Treaty Proclaimed on 5/23/1836Arkansas admitted as 25th StateSigns “Surplus bill” (“An Act (1 Stat 52) to regulate the deposites [sic] of the public money” authorizing distribution of surplus federal funds to the states; beneficial for Van BurenSigns Act (1 Stat 73) making appropriations for implementing the New Echota Treaty, $1,836,600 “for the removal of the Cherokees.”Specie Circular, issued by Treasury Department at Jackson’s direction, requiring payments for public lands in specie (gold or silver). Subsequently seen as cause of 1837 economic downturnProclamation 43B- Suspending Discriminating Duties on Vessels of the Grand Dukedom of TuscanyElection Day, Van Buren elected PresidentEight Annual State of the Union MessageResolution of Censure (1834) Expunged from Senate recordMichigan admitted as StateSubmits to Congress a list of unresolved claims against MexicoRecognizes Texas independence by nominating Alcee La Brauche to be charge d'affaires to the Republic of TexasPocket vetoes “An act designating and limiting the funds receivable for the revenues of the United States,” on grounds that it is fatally flawed because the language is “so liable to a diversity of interpretations.”Signs Judiciary Act (2 Stat 176) increased Supreme Court membership from 7 to 9 justicesAndrew Jackson Farewell AddressUS Secretary of State John Forsyth advises that treaties with Mexico preclude US annexation of TexasProclamation 43C—Extinguishing Title for Indian Lands Between the State of Missouri and the Missouri River. The federal government extinguishes all Native American land titles between Missouri and the Missouri River. Native American communities are removed after the United States claimed ownership of the landThe Panic of 1837, a financial crisis caused by reckless credit policies for Western land, drives the United States into a recession. The lack of a centralized national bank leaves many local banks to failProclamation 43D--Convening an Extra Session of the Congress in a session to begin 09/04/1837Receives a set of Resolves from officials in the State of Maine seeking assistance and support in resisting British "usurpations and encroachments," and urging the governor to call on the President to survey and explore the northeastern boundary of the state according to the treaty of 1783.The Minister of the Texas Republic proposes annexation of Texas to the United StatesRejects the Republic of Texas’ proposal to annex Texas. Van Buren fears that annexing Texas would compel Mexico to retaliate; cause controversy by adding to slave territoryIn Special Message opening a special session of Congress, calls for Congress to deal with the financial crisis. Suggested actions include a suspension of specie paymentsBy Special Message, provides the House of Representative with papers relating to the proposed Annexation of TexasNewspapers report expectation of immigration to Vermont from Canada due to "serious apprehensions of disturbances in CanadaFurther newspaper reports of armed conflict in Canada by groups opposed to British ruleFirst Annual Message. Expresses concern about relations with Britain concerning the Maine borderlands. Discusses unsettled US claims against Mexico but makes no mention of the Republic of Texas. Advocates for an independent Treasury systemCanadian politician and firebrand William Lyon Mackenzie attempts, near Toronto, to launch a popular rebellion against British colonial rule. Many in the US sympathized with the rebellion and hoped that eventually Canada would become part of the United States. Mackenzie later established a rebel force on Navy Island, not far from Niagara FallsAnnounces construction of an independent Treasury in order to hold federal fundsThe Caroline, an American steamship that was providing supplies to Canadian rebels on Navy Island (12/05/1837), is seized by the British-backed Canadian militia, set afire, and set adrift to float over the Niagara Falls. At least one American was killed during the raid. News of this event reaches Van Buren on 01/04/1838. In subsequent years, the incident will become important in international law as an instance of "anticipatory self-defense" on the part of the BritishIn a Special Message to the Congress, expresses concern that existing laws are insufficient to guarantee protection of American bordersProclamation 45A—Neutrality With Respect to Canadian Affairs. Emphasizes a peaceful response to the conflict arising from the Caroline incidentInaugural Address. Much of Van Buren’s address is spent paying tribute to the Presidents before himConvention between the United States and the Republic of Texas establishes a commission to survey and mark the international boundaryIn a Special Message to the House, addresses dispute over attacks on civilian steamboats between Mexico and AmericaIn a Special Message to the House, suggests that financial difficulties threaten to make the government insolventIn a Special Message to the Congress, addresses issues of communication to the Cherokee nation, asking them to move peacefully to the WestSigns Act dividing Territory of Wisconsin to establish Territorial Government of IowaProclamation—Neutrality With Respect to Canadian Affairs. Van Buren furthers neutrality with Canada, issuing another Proclamation stating that the American government will not assist any Americans engaged in criminal activities with CanadaIn a Special Message to Congress, delivers his Second Annual State of the Union MessageSpecial Message to Congress regarding conflict with British in the state of Maine. The "Aroostook conflict" occurred after a government formed a militia in Maine that forcefully removed trespassers from above the border in New Brunswick. Van Buren explains that a peaceful resolution must be drawn between the nations or seasonal conflict is inevitableSigns Act giving the President additional Powers for the defense of the United States against invasion (5 Stat 355). Specifically refers to any attempt by Great Britain to enforce its claim on parts of the state of Maine. Authorizes the President to call for up to 50,000 volunteers in the event of conflictVetoes joint resolution as it was not properly certified by the clerk of the House in which it originated. Explicitly does not address the substance. This is the only veto of Van Buren’s PresidencyThe so-called Aroostook War concerning the boundary between Maine and Canada end in a truce negotiated by General Winfield Scott under instructions from the President. The final disposition of the border is not settled until 1842 and the Webster-Ashburton TreatyA Convention for the Adjustment of Claims between US citizens and the Government of Mexico is signed in Washington. Creates a commission to adjudicate claims. This convention is ratified by the President 04/07/1840 and proclaimed 04/08/1840In a Special Message to the Senate, reports compensation by Great Britain for the brigs, Enterprise, Encomium, and Comet in which slaves were captured by the British territory of the Bermuda and Bahamas islandsU.S.S. Washington seizes a ship, the Amistad, carrying slaves, off of Long Island. These events become a highly visible controversy about slaveryThird Annual State of the Union Message. Congratulates the Treasury on its successful handling of the Panic of 1837 and urges against the evils of the federal government accruing debt. Van Buren also urges Congress to pass a law to make public officials using public funds for private purposes a crimeThe Whig Party meeting in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania nominates William Henry Harrison for President (chosen over Henry Clay and Winfield Scott). John Tyler is unanimously nominated for Vice PresidentAnnounces peace treaty with Republic of EcuadorResubmits treaty to Congress concerning the removal of New York Indians. Although there appear to be conflicting interests influencing the tribes, recommends removing the Native Americans as a move that will be beneficial to allIssues Executive Order requiring that all Federal workers work only ten hours per daySpecial Message to Congress relating to a report made by the Secretary of State to resolve the jurisdictional dispute about the schooner Amistad. On August 24, 1839, a U.S. ship captured the Amistad off the coast of Long Island, NY with enslaved Africans onboard. Van Buren sought to extradite the Africans to their Cuban enslavers in an effort to gain pro-slavery votes for his upcoming presidential termDemocratic National Convention meeting in Baltimore, MD, nominates Martin Van Buren for a second presidential term. However, due to "much diversity of opinion" delegates did not agree on a nominee for Vice President. Instead there was hope that before the election, opinion would coalesce behind a single candidateRecommends creation of exploratory committee to determine northeastern border region. This comes after Great Britain and the United States disagree on the northeastern border outlined in Treaty of ParisSends Special Message to Congress recommending military preparations in case of attack from Great BritainSigns Independent Treasury Act. The Act established an Independent Treasury which was responsible for the collection, transferal, and management of the government’s money supplyThe Federal District Court in Hartford, CT rules in the Amistad case that the Africans should be returned to Africa. The US government appeals this decision, and the Supreme Court decides the case on 03/09/1841, holding that the Africans were not slaves but the victims of kidnapElection Day. William Henry Harrison (Whigs) wins 79.6% of the Electoral College and 52.9% of the popular vote, defeating incumbent Van Buren. 80% of the eligible electorate voted in the election, the highest percentage of American turnout at that pointFourth Annual State of the Union Message. Expresses his belief in a peaceful resolution to the British border dispute. Also urges action against the slave trade and forbids citizens from trading with slave factoriesElectoral votes tabulated by CongressInaugural Address by William Henry HarrisonIn United States v. The Amistad, the Supreme Court rules 7-1 that the Africans on the ship Amistad were not slaves, but had been kidnapped, and the Africans were therefore legally freeAt urging of his Whig allies in Congress, by Proclamation calls a Special Session of Congress to begin on 05/31/1841. It is anticipated that this will lead to a new Bank of the United StatesBecomes bedridden with cold as a result of delivering his inaugural address in a cold rain. The cold developed into pneumoniaDies of pneumonia, the first president to die in office. There is great constitutional uncertainty regarding vice presidential succession and the legitimate role assumed by Vice President TylerCongressional Whigs adopt a resolution condemning Tyler, and state that he has "voluntarily separated himself" from those electing him to office and deny any future party responsibility for his actionsBy Proclamation 46A warns that armed bands of men crossing the northern border and committing crimes in Canada will be prosecuted and urges them to stop their activitiesFirst Annual MessageIn Special Message to the Senate, a boundary dispute between the Republic of Texas and the United States is settledIn Special Message to the House of Representatives, Tyler signs a resolution to create a committee to investigate the New York Custom House, where the government collects duties on imported goodsIn Special Message to Congress, Tyler recommends legislation to solidify the Federal government's power over the state in reference to its ability to send citizens back to their home country. This recommendation was made in reaction to the state of New York arresting a British citizenIn Special Message to Senate, addresses the Senate's rejection of Tyler’s nominee for the survey-general of Illinois and Missouri. Calls it a “misapprehension of facts.” Tyler nominates him againCommonwealth vs. Hunt decided by The Massachusetts Supreme Court in the "March term" of 1842 (so our assigning this to the 15th is a convenience, not reflecting any precise historical record). The Court holds that labor unions were not criminal conspiracies subject to prosecution. Unions are legal and have a right to strike. Regarded as a landmark of labor law but the decision did not completely end the chance of criminal charges on the grounds that striking was unlawfulIn Special Message to the House of Representatives, Tyler says he cannot comply with a House resolution that would give the legislative branch more power to make appointments, stating that to pass the resolution would be to take away the powers that the office of the president is given in the constitutionIn a very long Special Message to Congress, expresses concerns about the increasing and seemingly permanent public deficit and urges Congress to take action to bolster the TreasuryIn a Special Message to the House, submits a report addressed to the Secretary of State on the findings of the committee established to explore the boundary dispute between Maine, New Hampshire, and the British ProvincesIn Special Message to Congress, Tyler calls for Florida to stop hostility against the Indians, citing increased cost of fighting and hopes for a surrender of the small remaining Indian force. Requests Congress to consider making grants of lands to families who settle in FloridaIn Special Message to Senate, Tyler authorizes the issuing of brevet commissions for military services in FloridaSigns Apportionment Act of 1842 (5 Stat 491) that specifies that, starting in 1843, House elections would be for single-member districts (as opposed to so-called "general ticket" ballots). The Act also decreased the number of members of the House. On the same day, Tyler sent a Special Message to Congress explaining his approval of the act despite his "deep and strong doubts" as to the constitutionality of the actRepresentative John M. Botts (Whig, VA) introduces a petition requesting that President Tyler be impeached. A vote on impeachment is taken on 01/10/1843, and failsVetoes a tariff bill pointing out that the bill "directs an unconditional distribution of the land [sale] proceeds" which Taylor cannot support if import duties exceed 20 percent (as the bill proposed). The House majority refers the veto message to a select committee chaired by former President John Quincy AdamsIn Special Message to Senate conveys documents relating to Canadian border issues unresolved for many years. Negotiations are completed with Britain resolving the dispute over the Maine-New Brunswick border in the signing of the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, settling other boundary disputes, and dealing with the Caroline steamboat affairThe House Select Committee Report (see 08/09/1842) accuses Tyler of abusing his veto power and suggests a constitutional amendment to restrict the veto powerThe House of Representatives considers a Constitutional Amendment to change the vote required to override a presidential veto from a 2/3 majority to a simple majority. The vote was 98-90, less than the required constitutional majority of 2/3In a Message to the House of Representatives, complains bitterly of a recent House Select committee report (08/16/1842) critical of him and alleging that he had corrupt motives. Points out that the House has the constitutional authority to Impeach, but there is no constitutional authority to attack the president without providing him the opportunity to rebut the claims. The House refused to enter Tyler's message on the House JournalSigns the Tariff Act of 1842 (5 Stat 548) a protectionist tariff. Tyler approves this despite the fact that it did not lower tariffs to 20 percent as he had previously insistedTyler’s first wife Letitia Christian Tyler dies. She had suffered a stroke two years earlier which left her invalid. This was the first time a First Lady died in the White HouseWhile extending over a long period, and without a nationally standardized election date, the 1842 midterm Congressional Elections gave Democrats control of the House of Representatives and the Whigs lost seats in Senate. A major reversal for the WhigsSecond Annual MessageIn a Special Message to Congress, Tyler urges diplomatic contact with the Government of Hawaii and China, noting that both could be useful for future interests. Warns that attempts to colonize or dominate the Pacific Islands "could not but create dissatisfaction on the part of the United States." This extends the Monroe Doctrine westwardIn Special Message, Tyler informs the House of Representatives that Captain Thomas Jones is relieved of his position for invading the Mexican Republic and taking control of MontereyIn Special Message to the House of Representatives, recommends Congress to refund Spain for the loss of their schooner, the Amistad, to show good relations between the two countries.Signs "An Act to test the practicability of establishing a system of electro-magnetic telegraphs by the United States" appropriating $30,000 testing the invention of Samuel F. B. Morse under the superintendence of Professor MorseAccepts the resignation of Secretary of State Daniel Webster who later is elected to the SenateWagon train of over one hundred wagons departs Independence, Missouri bound for Oregon territory. This was the first major wagon train to reach all the way to the Columbia RiverAttends dedication of Bunker Hill Monument during his tour of Northern statesThird Annual MessageIn a Pocket Veto Message to the House of Representatives, Tyler explains his veto of a resolution that would give money to the commissioners of a treaty with the Cherokee IndiansIn Special Message to the House of Representatives, Tyler requests legislative action to authorize transferring funds to permit completing work on ships under construction. Urges encouraging application of steam technology and underscores the importance of naval power for the U.S.In a Special Message to Congress and an Executive Order to U.S. diplomatic and consular officers, announces the death of the Secretary of State, Secretary of the Navy, and a federal judge in an accidental explosion from a large gun on the steamship PrincetonIn Special Message to House of Representatives, presents an account of recent events in Rhode Island and appends many related documents. Rhode Island ratifies a new constitution after internal strife almost caused armed conflict. Tyler asserts the right of the Executive to provide aid and send the Secretary of War to diffuse the conflict, but remarks that putting the state’s constitution in federal control would be an overreach of executive powerBy Special Message transmits to the Senate for ratification a treaty signed on 04/12/1844 between The United States and the Republic of Texas providing for the annexation of Texas by the United StatesIn a one-day convention in Baltimore, MD, the Whig Party nominates Henry Clay for the Presidency. The Whig platform is silent on the issue of TexasTest of the first telegraph line from Washington, DC to Baltimore, MD. Samuel F. B. Morse had received $30,000 in a 03/03/1843 appropriations bill to build the telegraph lineDemocrats, (aka LocoFocos) meeting in Baltimore, decline to nominate former president Martin Van Buren, who had publicly opposed the annexation of Texas. On the 9th ballot the convention selects James K. Polk, former Governor of Tennessee, the first ever "dark horse" candidateThe “National Democratic Tyler Convention” meets at Calvert Hall in Baltimore and nominates Tyler for president: “God, Tyler, Texas!!” A goal of many in attendance was to influence the choice of the Federal Democrats meeting at the same time in the same cityThe Texas Annexation Treaty fails to gain the necessary two-thirds majority in the Senate amid dispute over the expansion of slavery in the west. (The vote was 35-17 against ratification.) The status of Texas figures prominently in the 1844 Presidential voteBy Special Message, the President notifies the House of Representatives of the Senate rejection of the Texas Annexation Treaty. He calls for Congress to take "any other expedient compatible with the constitution" to achieve annexationIn Veto Message to House of Representatives, Tyler vetoes a bill to improve rivers and harbors since this power is not enumerated in the Constitution and thus should be given to the states. The House sustains the veto on 06/11/1844 (vote of 104-84)Marries Julia Gardiner (age 24) at Church of the Ascension on Fifth Avenue in New York City. Tyler was the first President to be married while holding officeFirst trade treaty between the United States and China--Treaty of Wing-hsia (Wangxia)--is signed. The treaty established treaty ports for Chinese-Western trade. The treaty was ratified by the President 01/17/1845 and proclaimed on 04/08/1845Tyler withdraws from the Presidential race and throws his support to Democratic nominee James K. PolkVice President John Tyler officially notified of the death of William Henry Harrison. Assumes the Presidency--the youngest President up until that time. A former Democrat, Tyler had long opposed a national bank, protective tariff, and federal internal improvementsAddress Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States. Offers a “brief exposition of the principles which will govern me in the general course of my administration. . ." He announces his intention to "remove no incumbent from office who has faithfully and honestly acquitted himself . . ." He objects to public debt in times of peace, calls for appropriations that leave as little discretion as possible to bureaucrats. Pledges to support legislation restoring "a sound circulating medium."Expected to "take possession of the executive mansion."In Special Session Message, points out the Session had been called by his predecessor; argues that "extension of our Empire" westward presents no danger to our institutions; discusses the problems of government revenues; requests legislation to curb the unlimited creation of banks by the States. He supports the distribution of land revenues and new revenue measures. Concerning a "fiscal agent" for the Treasury he asserts his intent to use is veto power for any measure that conflicts with the ConstitutionIn Special Message to the House of Representatives, forwards a petition from New York citizens asks for the passage of bankruptcy lawSigns act for the relief of the widow of late President Harrison of $25,000 (5 Stat 437); the first instance of a pension being paid to the widow of a presidentSigns act allowing Federal borrowing of up to $12 millionIn Veto Message to Senate, Tyler vetoes a bill "to incorporate the subscribers to the Fiscal Bank of the United States." (Link to pdf of the text of the bill.) He states that he does not believe that the constitution gives the federal government this power. The Senate sustains the veto on 08/19/1841 (voting 25-24). This was a major commitment of the Whig Party members in CongressSigns Act creating a uniform system of bankruptcy through the United StatesSigns act (5 Stat 453) providing for the sale of public lands at $1.25 per acre, with the proceeds to be applied to internal improvements such as roads, railways, bridges and canalsVeto of act creating "Fiscal Corporation of the United States." The Act was, apparently, a second attempt of the Whigs to create an institution that could become in effect the Bank of the United States. In a long message, Tyler objects that "it can not be regarded as other than a bank of the United States, with powers seemingly more limited than have heretofore been granted to such an institution." The House sustains the veto on 09/10/1841In reaction to the veto of 09/09/1841, all members of the cabinet resign, except for Secretary of State Daniel Webster. These officials had been carried over from the Harrison AdministrationVetoed the Rivers and Harbors Bill, the first of three vetoesInforms Senate of a proposal to open peace negotiations with MexicoIn a Special Message, gives notice to Congress that Oregon Treaty ratifications had been exchanged in London 07/17/1846, and calls for organization of a Territorial Government in Oregon. Laws regulating relations with Indian tribes east of the Rocky Mountains should be extended to the Oregon territory. Congressional approval was held up by disagreements about slavery in the territoryVetoed French spoliation claims bill. This was the second of his three vetoesSurrender of MontereySecond State of the Union message to CongressIowa admitted as 29th stateBattle of Buena Vista. Zachary Taylor's victory ended the war in northern MexicoVeracruz occupiedPresidential tour. Polk visited states of Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, and New JerseyBattle of Molino del ReyBattle of ChapultepecMexico City capturedCayuse Indians attack the Whitman Mission near Walla Walla (in Oregon territory) killing 14 settlers. In reaction, a volunteer militia was formed to punish the attackers. Reaction in Washington, D.C. eventually resulted in the August 1848 establishment of the Oregon TerritoryThird State of the Union message to CongressVetoed Wisconsin Territory internal improvements bill. Polk objected that the bill provided funds for internal improvements beyond the Wisconsin Territory. Provides a long history of controversy about internal improvements. Points to “. . .the tendency of power to concentration in the hands of the General Government.”In a Special Message to the House, refuses to disclose all instructions given to an emissary (Slidell) on grounds that doing so is incompatible “with the public interests.”Gold discovered at Sutter’s Mill, CAReceived treaty ending war with Mexico, signed 02/02/1848 at Guadalupe Hidalgo, near Mexico CitySubmitted treaty ending war with Mexico to SenateWrote J. G. Ramsey asking him to communicate to the Democratic Convention Polk’s continuing determination not to seek reelectionSpecial Message to Congress urging immediate action on Oregon. Recounts messages that Indians had recently “raised ‘the war whoop and crimsoned their tomahawks in the blood of their citizens;’ that they apprehend that ‘many of the powerful tribes inhabiting the upper valley of the Columbia have formed an alliance for the purpose of carrying on hostilities against their settlements;’ that the number of the white population is far inferior to that of the savages." Calls for establishing a Territorial GovmntWisconsin admitted as 30th statePresidential election--in some states occurring over several days. Full national results are not known with certainty for weeks, but it was clear to observers by mid-November that Polk had probably won. And, indeed, Polk, endorsed by Tyler, defeated Whig Henry ClayFourth Annual MessageIn Special Message to Congress, Tyler condemns Mexico’s threat to renew a war over the annexation of Texas. Denounces dispatches made by the ministry of Mexico as generally hostile to the interest of the United StatesIn a Special Message to Congress, reports that China and the United States have drafted a treaty that stablishes trade relations, call for a formal U.S. representative in China, and establish a special provision by law for the protection of U.S. citizens living and doing business in ChinaSigns Act (5 Stat 721) to establish a uniform time for holding elections for electors of President and Vice President in all States of the Union (on “Tuesday next after the first Monday in the month of November”)Electoral College Votes counted in CongressIn Special Message to Senate and House, Tyler condemns actions that try and evade the restrictions on slave tradeVetoes "An act relating to revenue cutters and steamers." Objects that the language of the act as threatening to "violate the sanctity of contracts" entered into by the Government. The Senate and the House both voted to override on 03/03/1845 (5 Stat 795). Senator Huntington (Whig, CT) dismissed the veto as "merely technical and philological, amounting to nothing."Signs Joint Resolution for Annexation of Texas (5 Stat 797) Tyler offered Texas immediate annexation allowing the Republic of Texas to become a state conditional on approval of its constitution by the President on or before 01/01/1846. It permitted as many as four more states to be formed in the territory of the Republic of Texas, with or without slavery (if south of the Mason-Dixon line)Signs Act admitting the territories of Iowa and Florida as States (5 Stat 742). Iowa was admitted as a free state, Florida as a slave state. Admission of Florida had been delayed so it could be paired with a free state to maintain balance in CongressJames K. Polk inaugural addressMexico broke off diplomatic relations with U.S.Directs General Zachary Taylor to take a position “on or near the Rio Grande” (the disputed boundary with Mexico) which Taylor did not followCongress of Texas votes for annexation to the USAAppointed John Slidell as secret agent to Mexico to attempt to purchase Upper California and New MexicoIrish “Great Potato Famine,” results in surge of Irish immigration to USInformed that Mexico would receive American "commissioner"First Annual Message. States that the Americas are “not to be considered as subjects for colonization by any European powers.” Addresses ongoing negotiation with Britain about Oregon. States that admission of Texas only awaits an act of CongressSent Special Message to Congress announcing Texas had accepted terms of admissionPolk sends to Senate an extradition treaty with Prussia signed on January 29Nominated George W. Woodward as associate justice to Supreme Court; (on 01/22/1846, Woodward became the fourth nominee to be rejected by the Senate)Received British request that US offer of 49th parallel as boundary of Oregon be renewed, matter submitted to arbitrationTexas admitted as 28th stateCategorically orders General Taylor to occupy positions on or near left bank of Rio GrandeSpecial Message making case for an increase in naval or military force, especially with respect to MexicoIn Message to Congress, urges division among lands of the Cherokee tribe writing that “experience has proved that they have not yet advanced to such a state of civilization as to dispense with the guardian care and control of the Government of the United States.”Informed the cabinet he would recommend that Congress adopt energetic measures against MexicoFirst Mexican-U.S. military clash. An American reconnaissance party was attacked by a superior Mexican unit. A total of 11 were killed, Five wounded, and the other 47 Americans were capturedSigned joint resolution authorizing him to give notice to Great Britain for termination of joint occupation of OregonUS Army, under General Zachary Taylor, win decisive victories over Mexican forces in the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la PalmaSubmitted war message to CongressProclamation announces that war is declared with Mexico. Related Message to Senate of 06-08-1846Formulated military campaign plan in conference with Secretary of War William Marcy and General Winfield ScottServed notice on Great Britain that joint occupation of Oregon is to be terminatedSent to Senate proposal (not final treaty) from Great Britain for settlement of Oregon boundaryOregon Treaty signed between United States and Britain. Established 49th parallel as the border; reserved Vancouver Island for CanadaOregon Treaty Ratified in SenateSigned Act retroceding 36 square miles of District of Columbia to VirginiaSigned Walker Tariff of 1846 (An Act reducing the Duty on Imports, and for other PurposesProclaimed Mexican treaty in effectAttended laying of cornerstone for Washington MonumentDeclaration of the Rights of Women at Seneca Falls, NYSigned act establishing the Territory of Oregon, providing a lengthy signing statement (9 Stat 323). Discusses at some length the issue of slavery in the Territories. States that he approved this bill because it was not inconsistent with the Missouri Compromise (i.e., did not apply to area south of the 36° 30’ parallel). The bill included the “Wilmot Proviso” restricting the new territory to the conditions of the 1787 Northwest Ordinance prohibiting slavery in the territoriesFourth State of the Union Message to Congress; confirmed discovery of gold in California; triggers Gold RushGas lighting used for first time in White HouseSigned act creating Department of Interior (9 Stat 395). Also referred to at the time as the “Home Department”. Included: Patent Office, Office of the Census; Military pension Offices, Indian Affairs Office, General Land Office, Office of Mines, Office of Public BuildingsSigned act establishing Territory of Minnesota"Took leave of the White House." According to multiple contemporaneous news reportsElection Day. Whig candidate General Zachary Taylor defeats Democrat Lewis Cass and former Democratic President Martin Van BurenThis date is a Sunday. Taylor did not take the oath of office until the next day. There is speculation that Taylor is not yet President despite the end of Polk's term. It has been argued that assuming the office is not conditional on taking the oathZachary Taylor Inaugural AddressProclamation of day of fasting and prayer for cholera victimsSpeaking tour through Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New YorkProclamation warning US citizens against participating in armed invasion of CubaFirst Annual State of the Union Message. Commentators were amused by the statement that “We are at peace with all the world, and seek to maintain our cherished relations of amity with the rest of mankind.” Recommends the establishment of “an agricultural bureau” in the Department of the InteriorIn Special Message to the Senate, discusses the statehood of California and New Mexico and whether new states and territories would allow slaveryIn reaction against Taylor’s Message of 01/23/1850, Senator Henry Clay (KY) introduces eight resolutions that eventually formed the Compromise of 1850Attends the laying of the corner-stone at the Washington Monument in Richmond, VA. Reported to be the largest procession ever in Richmond. We are told that the President made a short address but have not located any transcriptionDeath of John C. Calhoun, Senator from South Carolina, a prominent advocate for states rights and the “Southern Section.”Around this date newspapers were reporting that Taylor was determined to defeat Clay and his proposed compromise resolutionsSubmits the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty to the Senate for ratification. The treaty (called a “convention” in official documents) established that neither Britain or the United States would have exclusive control over any future ship canal joining the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in Nicaragua or Panama. The treaty was subsequently widely viewed as ambiguous and a source of controversyRatifies the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty following Senate Ratification on 05/22/1850Advises the Senate in a Special Message that repeated efforts have been made to organize an invasion of Cuba from the United StatesSpecial Message informs the Senate that no orders have been issued to the U.S. military in Santa Fe concerning a boundary dispute between Texas and New Mexico. Taylor notes that the territory in question is a possession of the United States“Nashville Convention” meets to organize the Southern opposition to the attempt to exclude slavery from the new territories that had been won from MexicoAttends 4th of July celebrations at the Washington Monument under construction near the White House. The weather is very hot. Upon return to White House consumed quantities of iced water and/or milk and fresh vegetables which was followed later by a gastrointestinal illness at the time called “cholera morbus.”Signs a Proclamation announcing the ratification of the Clayton-Bulwer TreatyDies of gastroenteritisVice President Millard Fillmore sworn in as President in the House chambersFormally announces support of compromise with Texas. Recommends that Texas be paid to abandon claims to part of New Mexico. This moment might have been seized as an opportunity to defend the national union and the authority of the national governmentSigns Act (9 Stat 446) proposing the establishment of Texas border boundaries, as well as the establishment of New Mexico as a territory of the United States. The act included a $10 Million payment to Texas for ceding its claims on New Mexico. This was one element of the Compromise of 1850Signs Act (9 Stat 452) admitting California into the Union as a state, the second act of the Compromise of 1850. The act recognized and accepted the Constitution submitted by CaliforniaSigns Act (9 Stat 453) establishing Utah as a territory of the United States, the third act of the Compromise of 1850. The issue of slavery in the territory was left in the hands of the territorial legislature. This put an end to a proposal for a State of DeseretSigns the Fugitive Slave Act, which prohibits individuals from aiding runaway slaves and means slaves can't run away to a free stateSigns Act (9 Stat 467) abolishing slave trade in the District of Columbia, the fifth and final component of the Compromise of 1850Names Brigham Young, president of the Mormon Church, Governor of the Territory of UtahFirst National Women’s Rights Convention held by Feminists and Abolitionists in Worcester, MassachusettsFirst Annual State of the Union MessageProclamation 55—Establishing Northern and Western Boundaries of Texas and the formation of a New Mexico Territorial GovernmentShadrach Minkins, an escaped slave from Virginia, became the first person arrested in Massachusetts under the Fugitive Slave Act. Minkins was rescued by a group of Black men, and an abolitionist network transported him to MontrealProclamation 56—Calling on citizens to assist in the recapture of a fugitive slave arrested in Boston, MassachusettsSpecial Message to Congress asks for more restrictions and power to enforce the Fugitive Slave Act in northern states, particularly MassachusettsProclamation 57—Warning to United States citizens against participating in an unlawful invasion of CubaHarriet Beecher Stowe begins publication of Uncle Tom’s Cabin as a serial appearing in The National Era, an abolitionist newspaper published in the District of ColumbiaLays cornerstone for extension of CapitolGold is discovered along the Rogue River in OregonProclamation 58—Warning citizens of the United States against participating in an unlawful invasion of MexicoSecond Annual State of the Union MessageMessage to the Senate seeks ratification of a treaty of friendship with Costa RicaSigns Act (10 Stat 1) which authorizes funds for repairs to the Library of Congress, which had been destroyed by a fireSeeks renomination for President from the Whig Party, but is denied when the party nominates General Winfield ScottSecretary of State Daniel Webster diesElection Day; Democratic Party nominee Franklin Pierce is elected President, winning 85.8% of the electoral vote and 50.8% of the popular vote. The Whig Party splits between northern and southern WhigsDeliberations begin in Oregon to split up the territory into two separate territories one of which would eventually become Washington stateThird Annual State of the Union Message. “. . . in California and Oregon there has been no recognition by the Government of the exclusive right of the Indians to any part of the country. They are therefore mere tenants at sufferance, and liable to be driven from place to place at the pleasure of the whites.”Sends proposed “Treaty of Friendship” between the United States and the Oriental Republic of Uruguay for consideration in the SenateSends proposal to the Senate which would give the United States and the State of Prussia mutual extradition rightsSigns Act (10 Stat 160) establishing minting of gold coins worth $3 and reducing the amount of silver contained in standard coinsNominates William C. Micou as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court. Micou becomes the third Supreme Court nominee under President Fillmore to not be acted upon by the SenateSigns Act (10 Stat 172) establishing Territorial Government of Washington after separation from OregonLast Whig President. After Fillmore, only Garfield never vetoed an act of Congress. He was nominated for president in 1856 by the “American National” or “Know-Nothing” party and received nearly 22% of the popular voteInaugural Address. Pierce becomes the first and only President to state “I do solemnly affirm” while taking the oath of office, as the Constitution permits, rather than “do solemnly swear.”Issues Executive Order for plans to mourn and commemorate Vice President William R. King, who dies 45 days into office. Congress was forced to pass special legislation (10 Stat 180) allowing King to take the oath of office in Cuba, where he moved hoping to recover from tuberculosis. King died on 04/18/1853 at his home in Chestnut Hill, Alabama, the evening after returning home from CubaOn a speaking tour, visits Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York, New JerseySpeaks to Open the Crystal Palace Exhibition in NYC. This is the first World’s Fair hosted in the United States. Pierce highlights the Exhibition’s demonstration of American progress in his opening ceremony speechFirst Annual State of the Union MessageU.S. Minister to Mexico James Gadsden and Mexican President Antonio de Santa Anna sign what becomes known as the Gadsden Treaty, stipulating the purchase of 45,000 square miles south of the New Mexico territory for $15 million. The Senate later ratifies a treaty on April 25, 1854 reducing the deal to 29,670 square miles for $10 millionIssues Proclamation 60 warning United States citizens against participating in an unlawful invasion of MexicoA group of Senators and Representatives publish “Appeal of the Independent Democrats to the People of the United States,” calling for opposition to the Kansas and Nebraska billThe Republican Party is founded in Ripon, Wisconsin following demonstrations sparked by the publication of “Appeal of the Independent Democrats” in various newspapers (see above 1/19/1854). A mass meeting “Under the Oaks” was later held in the outskirts of Jackson, Michigan on 06/06/1854, during the decline of the Whig Party. The new Republican Party is composed of former Whigs, Free-Soilers, and northern Democrats dismayed with the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and slavery’s potential expansionCommadore Matthew C. Perry signs the Treaty of Kanagawa, the first treaty between Japan and the United States. The Treaty obtains two coaling ports for the United States, protects the rights of American whalers, and plants the seeds for a commercial treaty between the two nations in 1858The Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Company is founded by Eli Thayer in response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Later renamed the New England Emigrant Aid Company, the company was originally founded to transport antislavery settlers to Kansas Territory. The organization’s founding is a precursor to the violence experienced in the Bleeding Kansas conflictIssues Veto Message for land grants for the benefit of "indigent insane persons.” Veto is sustainedSigns the Kansas-Nebraska Act, repealing the 1820 Missouri Compromise and creating two new territories. Nebraska and Kansas would decide whether to permit slavery in their territories. Proslavery and antislavery settlers poured into Kansas immediately following its enactment, hoping to influence the territory’s first election. The ensuing years of violent conflict became known as Bleeding Kansas. The Act would also become a major source of division within the Democratic Party, which helped pass the law in CIssues Proclamation 61, warning United States citizens against participating in an unlawful invasion of CubaAnthony Burns, a fugitive slave from Virginia, is arrested in Boston. There is a trial to determine whether Burns must be returned to his prior owners under the Fugitive Slave act of 1850. The judge orders Burns’s return, which occurred despite violent protest resulting in the death of a federal marshalBritish North America Governor General Lord Elgin and U.S. Secretary of State William Marcy sign the Canadian Reciprocity Treaty, a free trade agreement between the United States and Canada. The Treaty reduced import duties and protective tariffs on specific goods exchanged between the two countriesSigns Appropriations Bill (10 Stat 301) enabling the President to fulfill the amended purchase outlined in the Gadsden Treaty. The U.S. purchases 29,670 square miles of Mexican land for $10 million, later comprising parts of Arizona and New Mexico. The Treaty resolves tensions from the Mexican-American war and provides enough land for a southern transcontinental railroadIssues Veto Message denying the appropriation of funds for the repair, preservation, and completion of certain public works. Veto is sustainedU.S. minister to Spain, Pierre Soule, writes the Ostend Manifesto, advising the United States to threaten to invade Cuba if Spain refuses to sell Cuba to the U.S. The document, also signed by future President James Buchanan, ruins U.S. hopes of Cuban annexation and leads to Soule’s resignationSecond Annual State of the Union MessageSigns Act (10 Stat 604) guaranteeing the right of U.S. citizenship for all children born on foreign soil to American parentsIssues Veto Message rejecting French Spoliation Claims bill, which would have allowed private citizens to make claims and pursue damages against the French Government. Veto is sustainedSigns Act (10 Stat 612) establishing the first United States Court of ClaimsIssues Veto Message rejecting bill which would have subsidized “the transportation of United States mail, by ocean steamships and other-wise.” Veto is sustainedThe “Know Nothing” Party, a nativist political party and movement, changes its official name from the Native American Party to the American PartyKansas antislavery settlers form the Free State Forces and gather at Big Springs in response to the “bogus” proslavery legislature that convened in Pawnee on 07/02/1855The Topeka Constitutional Convention meets in Topeka, Kansas and drafts the Topeka Constitution, banning slavery in Kansas. Free Staters organize the convention to counter the proslavery Kansas Territory Legislature formed through election fraud. Congress rejects the constitution and denies the request for admission to the UnionWakarusa War begins as part of "Bleeding Kansas" tensions between Free-Staters and pro-slavery militias. A peace treaty is signed by both sides to prevent violence and the destruction of Lawrence, KansasIssues Proclamation 64, warning United States Citizens against participating in unlawful military operations in NicaraguaThird Annual State of the Union MessageSends Special Message to Congress regarding the events of "Bleeding Kansas.” Pierce recommends the citizens of Kansas frame a constitution to gain statehood and admittance into the UnionIssues Proclamation 66—Law and Order in the Territory of Kansas, commanding “all persons engaged in unlawful combinations against constituted authority of the Territory of Kansas or of the United States to disperse and retire peaceably. . . ”Vetoes two bills. One appropriating funds to improve navigation on the Mississippi, and the second appropriating funds to deepen a river channel in Michigan. Argues that the Constitution does not give the General Government authority to carry out “internal improvements.” Both vetoes are overridden on 07/08/1856Proslavery forces and Border Ruffians raid Lawrence, Kansas following Judge Samuel D. LeCompte’s demand that Free State officials be indicted for treason. The proslavery forces destroy the Free-State Hotel and two of Lawrence’s antislavery newspapers, escalating the tensions of Bleeding KansasRepresentative Preston Brooks viciously attacks Senator Charles Sumner with a cane in what becomes known as the Sumner-Brooks Affair. The attack comes three days after Sumner insults Senators Stephen Douglas and Andrew Butler in his “Crime Against Kansas” speech. The speech advocated for the admission of Kansas to the Union as a free stateJohn Brown, five of his sons, and three additional associates murder 5 proslavery men in cabins along the Potawatomie Creek. The attack serves as Brown’s revenge for the sacking of Lawrence and attack on Senator Charles Sumner a few days priorThe Democratic National Convention is held in Cincinnati, Ohio. Pierce seeks re-election, but is denied by the Democratic Party due to his handling of the “Bleeding Kansas” conflict. The Democratic Party nominates James Buchanan and John C. Breckinridge for Vice President. Pierce would become the only active elected president to be denied renomination by his party for a second termThe American Party, also known as the Know Nothing Party, nominates former President Millard Fillmore for President and Andrew J. Donelson for Vice President. At the convention, a group of antislavery delegates abruptly left in reaction to the proposal of a proslavery party platformThe first Republican National Convention is held in Philadelphia. The Republican Party nominates John C. Fremont for President and William L. Dayton for Vice PresidentIssues Veto Message rejecting an Act to repair sections of the Patapsco River and make the port of Baltimore accessible to U.S. war steamers. Veto is overridden by CongressThe Battle of Osawatomie occurs between approximately 250 border ruffians and 40 Free-Staters led by John Brown. John W. Reid’s proslavery forces overwhelmed the Free-Staters and destroyed Osawatomie. The engagement marks another instance of violence in the Bleeding Kansas conflictThe last Whig National Convention is held in Baltimore. The Whig Party nominates Millard Fillmore for President and Andrew J. Donelson for Vice PresidentElection Day. James Buchanan wins 58.8% of the Electoral College and 45.3% of the popular vote. Buchanan defeated Whig candidate Millard Fillmore and Republican candidate John FremontFourth Annual State of the Union MessageState of Disunion Convention is held in Worcester, Massachusetts to discuss the prospect of a peaceful separation of Northern and Southern StatesSigns Act (11 Stat 163) ordering foreign coins to be re-minted and no longer considered legal tenderSigns Tariff Act of 1857 (11 Stat 199), reducing tariffs on imports by over 20% and increasing the list of goods that could be imported for freeJames Buchanan is inaugurated as the 15th President of the United StatesSupreme Court decides Dred Scott v. Sanford, in which the Supreme Court determined that a free black person is still not a citizen, and as non-citizens, they have no right to sue in Federal Court. The right of citizens to their private property, including slaves, is established in the US Constitution, and Congress could not prohibit slavery in the territories as it had done in the Missouri CompromiseAppoints Robert J. Walker as territorial governor of Kansas. Walker quickly resigns after announcing his opposition to the pro-slavery Lecompton ConstitutionThe Panic of 1857 begins when multiple banks fail due to a lack of international trade. The financial crisis lasts for 18 monthsCitizens of Kansas elect free state legislative bodyFirst Annual State of the Union MessageSigns Act (11 Stat 257) authorizing Issue of Treasury Notes to encourage economic activity during the Panic of 1857Message to Congress submitting the Lecompton Constitution, proposing that Kansas be admitted into the union as a slave stateIssues proclamation ordering military intervention to address rebellion of Mormon militia resisting the replacement of Brigham Young as governor of the Territory of UtahSigns English Act (11 Stat 269), allowing government of Kansas to be admitted into the Union. The act proposes a popular vote on whether or not to put in effect the Lecompton ConstitutionSigns Act (11 Stat 285) admitting Minnesota into the Union as a stateAnnounces treaty with the Sioux Indians and transmits to CongressLecompton Constitution is defeated in Kansas, failing to win approval for the second time by overwhelming voteSecond Annual State of the Union MessageVetoes Overland Mails Bill, which would have increased speed of cross-country postal service. This was a pocket veto at the end of the prior session of CongressSigns Act (11 Stat 383) admitting Oregon into the Union as a stateVetoes land grants for agricultural colleges. The veto is sustained in the House on 02/26/1859Southern slave owners advocate for the reopening of the African slave trade at the Southern Commercial ConventionKansas’ anti-slavery Wyandotte Constitution is ratified with a huge popular vote marginAbolitionist John Brown raids an armory and arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia), hoping to trigger a slave uprising. Brown’s raid was decisively ended by troops led by Col. Robert E. Lee, and Brown captured. The incident was hugely controversial and stoked fears in slave states. This domestic use of military forces was not preceded by posting a drafted presidential proclamationAbolitionist John Brown executed, but comes to be viewed by abolitionists as a martyrThird Annual State of the Union Message. Expresses his belief that any legal means should be utilized to eliminate illegal slave trading.Abraham Lincoln’s Cooper Union Speech in which he expresses his views against slavery and its expansion. Discusses Dred Scott decision and Harper’s FerryHouse adopts resolution forming committee to investigate the President’s conduct regarding corruption claims. The committee investigation concludes in June with no chargesDemocratic Party convention meets in Charleston, SC, but cannot agree on slavery plank, and after 57 ballots, no candidate wins the required 2/3 vote. The Convention adjourned until June 18 in Baltimore. As previously promised, Buchanan does not seek renominationIllinois Representative Abraham Lincoln is nominated for President at the Republican National ConventionSecond Democratic Party convention, this in Baltimore, with several southern states not represented. Stephen Douglas declared the winner with 2/3 of the votes of delegates presentVetoes Homestead Bill, which would have allowed citizens to purchase land for 25 cents per acre. Buchanan believes that the sale of land for 25 cents per acre is too low of a price, and that it is unfair to settlers who had originally paid a higher price for the land. The Veto is sustained by the Senate on 06/23/1860Democrats “reassemble” in Baltimore, primarily delegates from Southern states and nominate John C. Breckinridge of KentuckySupreme Court Justice Peter Vivian Daniel diesElection Day. Abraham Lincoln wins 59.4% of the Electoral College and 39.9% of the popular voteAttorney General Jeremiah S. Black advises Buchanan that “war cannot be declared, nor a system of general hostilities carried on by the Central Government against a State.” In the event a State declares independence, “Congress or the other States in convention assembled must take such measures as may be necessary and proper.”Fourth Annual State of the Union Message, in which Buchanan argues that the South has no legal right to secede, yet the government has no legal power to prevent the secession. Calls for an "explanatory amendment" to the Constitution recognizing the "right of property in slaves" and the validity of the fugitive slave actElectoral College votes are castHowell Cobb, Secretary of the Treasury, resigns because “the honor and safety of my State [of Georgia] are involved” and differs with some views Buchanan expressed in his State of the Union MessageIn a letter of this date (apparently not actually sent until 12/14/1860), Secretary of State Lewis Cass resigns, pointing to disagreements with Buchanan over deploying troops to defend the forts in Charleston harborSouth Carolina becomes the first state to secede from the UnionBuchanan refuses to meet with South Carolina “commissioners” who sought possession of US government propertySpecial Message to Congress discussing “the calamity” confronting the nation.Mississippi secedesAlabama secedesGeorgia secedesLouisiana secedesTexas secedesBy Special Message, informs Congress of a communication from the State of Virginia requesting agreement by the President and seceding states “to agree to abstain. . . from any and all acts calculated to produce a collision of arms. . . “ Buchanan states that only Congress has power to enter such an agreement, and that his duty is to defend and protect public property “so far as this may be practicable.”Signs Act (12 Stat 126) admitting Kansas into the Union as a state. Kansas prohibits slavery after being admitted under the Wyandotte ConstitutionNominates Secretary of State Jeremiah Black as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court; Black is rejected by the Senate on 02/21/1861First session of Provisional Congress of the Confederate States of America at Montgomery, Alabama. Adopts constitution on 02/09/1861Jefferson Davis is selected President of the Provisional Government of the Confederate StatesElectoral votes are tabulated by Congress, officially establishing Abraham Lincoln as President-electBy Special Message, responds to inquiry from House of Representatives whether he has information about a conspiracy to prevent the inauguration of the president-elect. He observes that stationing troops in Washington D.C. had contributed to a “feeling of comparative peace and security.”Signs Morrill Tariff, establishing extensive protective tariff system that forms the basis for American international trade policy for 50 yearsSigns Act (12 Stat 209) authorizing the organization of the territory of Nevada. Also signs an Act (12 Stat 239) the same day authorizing the formation of the temporary government of DakotaCongress proposes the Corwin Amendment on Slavery, which would have introduced an amendment protecting slavery from federal intervention or abolitionLincoln’s First Inaugural AddressMessage to the Senate on Royal Arbitration of American Boundary LinesProtective tariff system defined by Morrill Tariff (passed on 03/02/1861; 12 Stat 178) takes effectFt. Sumter, Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, is shelled and surrenders the next dayProclamation 80 Calling Forth the Militia and Convening an Extra Session of Congress, Session to begin July 4, 1861Virginia secedesProclamation 81- Declaring a Blockade of Ports in Rebellious StatesRobert E. Lee resigns his commission with the U.S. Army in order to “defend his native state” of VirginiaProclamation 82—Extension of Blockade to Ports of Additional StatesProclamation 83- Increasing the Size of the Army and NavyArkansas secedesNorth Carolina secedesConfederate capital relocated to Richmond, VAUnion forces seize Arlington House, the residence of Robert E. LeeTennessee secedesWestern counties of Virginia break away from the state to form West Virginia and be recognized as a state in 1863In a Special Session Message, Lincoln reviews the events since his Inauguration and his decision to “call out the war power of the Government.” He calls for raising an army of at least 400,000. Argues forcefully against the idea that States have a right to withdraw from the UnionSigns Appropriations for the Army for Fiscal Year 1862 (12 Stat 261). This act supplemented funding for and expanded the Navy and ArmyFirst Battle of Bull Run, Manassas Junction, Virginia (Confederate victory)Signs An Act for the Suppression of Rebellion (12 Stat 281) authorizing the President to employ any military forces necessary “to enforce the faithful execution of the laws of the United States” against rebellionsSigns a complex Revenue Act (12 Stat 292) that includes among its provisions a three-percent tax on annual income above $800Signs an act (12 Stat 326) that approves Lincoln’s emergency use of army and navy and militia. These orders are “in all respects legalized and made valid. . . as if they had been issued and done under the previous express authority and direction of the Congress of the United States.”Signs Compensation Act (12 Stat 319) authorizing the seizing of any property used to support the insurrection, including slaves, providing a basis for freeing any escaped slavesProclamation 86- Prohibiting Commercial Trade with States in RebellionFirst transcontinental telegram sent from Sacramento, CA to Lincoln by the president of the Overland Telegraph Co.McClellan named commanding General succeeding Winfield ScottFirst Annual State of the Union Message. Lincoln discusses ways to encourage freeing of slaves and calls for a plan for colonization of the freed slavesWar Order #1 Directs that February 22 be a day for “general movement” of forces against the insurgentsExecutive Order relating to Political Prisoners directs release of prisoners suspected or accused of treason provided they agree to provide no aid or comfort to the enemiesLincoln’s son Willie dies at the White House at the age of 11Recommends to Congress a program of compensated emancipation of slavesFirst battle of ironclad warships; demonstrated the importance of ironclads, and eventually kept the Confederate ship confined in a body of water known as Hampton RoadsSigns "Additional Article of War" (12 Stat 354) prohibiting the return by military forces of escaped slavesUlysses S. Grant wins major Union victory at Battle of Shiloh in western TennesseeSigns “Act for the Release of certain Persons held to Service of Labor in the District of Columbia,” (12 Stat 376) freeing slaves in the District and compensating their owners up to $300 provided the owner swears an oath of allegiance to the Government of the United States. Appropriates $1 Million for the program and $100,000 to “aid in the colonization and settlement of such free persons of African descent now residing in said District.”Proclamation 89—Termination of Blockade of Beaufort, North Carolina, Port Royal, South Carolina, and New Orleans, LouisianaSigns Homestead Act (12 Stat 392) allowing settlers to acquire up to 160 acres of public landExecutive Order- Taking Military Possession of RailroadsGeneral Robert E. Lee becomes commander of Army of Northern Virginia replacing General Joseph Johnson who had been wounded in battleSigns "An Act to secure Freedom to all Persons within the Territories of the United States" (12 Stat 432) eliminating slavery in any Territories of the United StatesOrder Constituting the [Union] Army of VirginiaSigns Act prescribing an Oath of Office for all federal government office-holders (12 Stat 502) including that “I have never voluntarily borne arms against the United States. . . given no aid, countenance, counsel, or encouragement to persons engaged in armed hostility thereto. . . “Signs Morrill Act (12 Stat 503) donating public land to be used to support colleges “for agriculture and the mechanic arts.”Message to Congress Proposing an Act of Compensated EmancipationSigns "An Act to grant Pensions" (12 Stat 566) that increased pension rates and provided pensions to anyone in military service since 03/04/1861. Also benefitting were their widows and orphans (if death due to military service), or a dependent mother or sister. These pensions eventually become the largest single expenditure of the government (other than interest on the debt)Signs Second Confiscation Act (12 Stat 589) declaring that slaves owned by anyone participating in rebellion will be made free; seeks to seize property of Confederate leaders; specifies that escaped slaves are to be set free; allows the President to “employ as many persons of African descent as he may deem necessary and proper for the suppression of this rebellion.”Signs Act amending the Act calling forth the Militia (12 Stat 597). Includes provision freeing any slave serving in the Militia together with his mother, his wife and his childrenBeginning of “Dakota War” in the State of Minnesota. Dakota warriors angry about their conditions attacked white settlers. Eventually over 600 settlers and soldier died as well as 75-100 DakotaLetter to Horace Greeley published in New York Times, August 24; “If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that.”Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas, VA) and a second Confederate victoryBattle of Antietam (Maryland); bloody battle ends Lee’s invasion of the NorthProclamation 93—Declaring the Objectives of the War Including Emancipation of Slaves in Rebellious States on January 1, 1863 (Emancipation Proclamation)State of the Union Message. Discusses prospects for colonization of “free Americans of African descent.” Observes that “Indian tribes upon our frontiers have during the past year manifested a spirit of insubordination. . . “ The Sioux Indians attacked settlements “with extreme ferocity.” Proposes a constitutional amendment for compensated abolition of slaveryMessage to the Senate Responding to the Resolution Regarding Indian Barbarities in the State of Minnesota. Reports that he commuted the death sentences of all convicted in the “Dakota Wars” except for those proven to have participated in massacres as opposed to battlesBattle of Fredericksburg (VA), is a grave defeat for the Union ArmySigns Act admitting West Virginia to the Union (12 Stat 633) once a vote of the people certifies the choice and the President issues a proclamationProclamation 95—Regarding the Status of Slaves in States Engaged in Rebellion Against the United States [Emancipation Proclamation]Signs Act establishing the Territory of ArizonaSigns the National Banking Act (12 Stat 665) creates a system for national banking; system of national currency; creates the office of Comptroller of the CurrencySigns act establishing the Territory of IdahoSigns Act to Incorporate the National Academy of SciencesSigns Habeas Corpus Act (12 Stat 755) authorizing the President, during the present rebellion to suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus “whenever, in his judgment the public safety may require it.”Proclamation 100, Admitting West Virginia to the Union. (Admission takes effect 60 days later.)General Grant opens his assault on Vicksburg (MS) in an effort to wrest control of the Mississippi River from the ConfederatesThe War Department issues General Order 143, creating a Bureau devoted to the organizing of Colored TroopsWest Virginia admitted as a state pursuant to Proclamation 100 of 04/20/1863Battle of Gettysburg. Confederate invasion of the North fails after a fierce battle with over 7,000 dead and 27,000 woundedConfederate troops surrender at Vicksburg (MS) after a 47 day siegeNew York City draft riots. Protests against the draft degenerated into a anti-Black race riot leaving around 120 deadExecutive Order directs equal retaliation against Southern prisoners for instances of execution or enslavement of Northern prisoners by the SouthLincoln letter to James C. Conkling defending his policies on emancipation against criticism from Union supportersProclamation 104- Suspending the Writ of Habeas Corpus Throughout the United StatesProclamation 107—Call for 300,000 VolunteersGettysburg Address. Significant because it reframed the Civil War as a fight to abolish slavery and achieve "a new birth of freedom." Until then, the purpose of the war had only been to preserve the Union as it wasThird Annual State of the Union MessageProclamation 108—Amnesty and Reconstruction. Proposes lenient terms for former Confederates who accept prior Proclamations regarding slaverySigns "Act Amending the Act for enrolling and calling out the National Forces" (13 Stat 6) that authorizes the President to establish quotas for volunteers as needed, and if insufficient volunteers, draft authorizedBy Executive Order designates Ulysses Grant as commander of the armies of the United StatesSigns "An Act enabling the People of Nevada to form a constitution and State Government."Proclamation 111 limits amnesty to individuals not already in custody (prisoners) or under bonds or on patrolLetter to Albert G. Hodges. Lincoln explains and defends the evolution of his thinking about emancipation. “I felt that measures, otherwise unconstitutional, might become lawful, by becoming indispensable to the preservation of the constitution, through the preservation of the nation.”The Senate passes Joint Resolution to adopt the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, which would end slaveryAddress at Sanitary Fair in Baltimore: A Lecture on Liberty. Addresses reports of massacre of Union troops imprisoned at Fort Pillow, TennesseeExecutive order for Arrest and Imprisonment of Irresponsible Newspaper Reporters and EditorsSigns Act establishing the Territory of MontanaLincoln nominated for President at Union National ConventionAddress at a Sanitary Fair in PhiladelphiaLincoln Letter Accepting the Presidential NominationSigns Act Repealing the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850Pocket Veto of Wade-Davis Reconstruction billProclamation 113 Declares Martial Law and suspends Habeas Corpus in Kentucky. Acts pursuant to Act of 03/03/1863Proclamation 115 explains the pocket veto of the Wade Davis Reconstruction billExchange of letters with Horace Greeley about possibility of peace negotiations in Niagara FallsIn Proclamation 116, calls for 500,000 volunteers pursuant to a law that authorizes him to institute a draft in areas where quotas are not metInterview with John T. Mills. “Abandon all the posts now garrisoned by black men, take one hundred and fifty thousand men from our side and put them in the battle-field or corn-field against us, and we would be compelled to abandon the war in three weeks.”Executive Order Tendering Thanks to Major-General William T. Sherman [upon capture of Atlanta, Georgia on September 2]. Also directs a celebration of Sherman’s successes at military posts around the country by Executive OrderProclamation 119—Admitting State of Nevada Into the UnionElection Day. Lincoln handily defeats George McClellanFourth Annual State of the Union MessageProclamation 121—Calling for 300,000 VolunteersHouse of Representatives passes resolution proposing the 13th AmendmentSigns resolution submitting to the states the 13th Amendment to the Constitution; for ratificationHampton Roads Peace Conference between Lincoln, Secretary of State Seward and two members of the Confederate CabinetMessage of Reply to a Committee of Congress Reporting the Result of the Electoral Vote CountMessage to the House of Representatives Containing a Chronologic Review of Peace Proposals [to end the Civil War]Signs Act to establish a Bureau for the Relief of Freedmen and RefugeesSecond Inaugural AddressProclamation 124—Offering Pardon to DesertersExecutive Order—Ordering the Arrest and Designation as Prisoners of War all Persons engaged in intercourse or trade with the Insurgents by seaProclamation 125—Ordering the Arrest and Prosecution of those Furnishing arms to Hostile IndiansAddress to an Indiana Regiment. “While I have often said that all men ought to be free, yet would I allow those colored persons to be slaves who want to be, and next to them those white people who argue in favor of making other people slaves.”Executive Order—Ordering the Raising of the Flag and other Commemorations at Fort SumterUnion troops occupy Petersburg and RichmondLincoln visits RichmondLee surrenders Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox Court House but other Confederate Generals continue to fightFinal public Address to a crowd on the White House lawnLincoln dies following his shooting by John Wilkes Booth on the night of 04/14/1865Andrew Johnson becomes President upon death of Abraham Lincoln. Takes oath of office at his hotel in Washington D.C. The oath is administered by Chief Justice Salmon P. ChaseAddress to the nation upon assuming the office of President of the United StatesIn agreement with the Cabinet, rejects the Confederate Army’s terms for surrender, agreed by Union General Sherman and Confederate General Johnston in North Carolina, as too lenientGeneral Joseph E. Johnston surrenders near Durham Station, North Carolina on more stringent terms than first proposed. Other forces across the South and west of the Mississippi River later surrenderUnion soldiers surround and kill John Wilkes Booth outside a tobacco barn in Virginia following Booth’s assassination of President Abraham LincolnIssues Executive Order declaring conspirators in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln are subject to the jurisdiction of and lawfully triable before a military commissionIssues Proclamation 131 offering rewards for the arrests of, prominent Confederate leaders including Jefferson Davis, Jacob Thompson, and Clement C. Clay Jr.Issues Executive Order rescinding prohibition of arms, ammunition, horses, mules, and livestock to Confederate states that were originally issued on November 21, 1862, and May 13, 1863Former Confederate president Jefferson Davis is arrested in Georgia and eventually confined at Fort Monroe, Virginia (near Norfolk). Originally suspected of involvement in Lincoln’s assassination, he was eventually charged only with treasonIssues Proclamation 134 offering amnesty to all white Southerners who take a loyalty oath to regain their property. Outlines a plan for reconstruction in the SouthBy Proclamation 135, appoints William Holden provisional Governor of North Carolina, and directs that he convene a convention of “loyal people” to restore a constitutional government in the stateIn a series of Proclamations, appoints provisional governors of Mississippi, Texas, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina. These governors are charged to construct constitutional governments for the states. Is perceived to appoint governors relatively acceptable to white SouthernersIssues Proclamation 137 removing trade restrictions on all Confederate states east of the Mississippi RiverBy Proclamation 142 removes all restrictions on trade West of the Mississippi RiverIn General Orders 138 directs the military to provide free transportation for materials required by the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned LandsIssues Proclamation 146 declaring an end to martial law in the former Confederate state of KentuckyInterview with George L. Stearns. Discusses restoring Southern states to Congress, and the issue of negro voting rights “The negro with vote with the late master whom he does not hate, rather than with the non-slaveholding white, whom he does hate. Universal suffrage would create another war, not against us, but a war of races.”Remarks to the First District of Columbia Colored Regiment. “Can four millions of people, raised as they have been with all the prejudices of the white, can they take their places in the community and be made to work harmoniously and congruously in our system?”An Interview with a delegation from South Carolina. “Those coming out of slavery cannot do without work; they cannot lie down in dissipation; they must work; they ought to understand that liberty means simply the right to work and enjoy the products of labor, and that the laws protect them.”Message to Governor William Holden of North Carolina.. Advises the Convention of Restoration of statehood to repudiate all debts incurred by the State “in aid of the late rebellion.”Issues Proclamation 148 revoking the suspension of the Writ of Habeas Corpus throughout the United States. Suspension of the Writ of Habeas Corpus remained in Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas, Washington D.C., and the Territories of New Mexico and ArizonaMississippi enacts the first Black Codes, a set of laws restricting the rights of African Americans and subordinating their place in society. Other ex-Confederate states follow suit in the following monthsFirst Annual Message to Congress. References how personal perspective on the Constitution guides his vision for “restoring the constitutional relations of the States.”Orders William L. Sharkey to turn over the governorship to Mississippi’s elected successor. Issues similar orders to provisional governors of Alabama, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida over the next five weeks. The new state governments are largely populated with ex-Confederate officialsKu Klux Klan organized at the law offices of Judge Thomas M. Jones, Pulaski TN; apparently initially as a secret-membership social club, by a group of Confederate Veterans. By early 1866, the organization's focus emphasized active resistance to reconstruction and promotion of white supremacyInterview with a delegation of “colored representatives” on the issue of suffrage.Vetoes “An Act to establish a Bureau for the Relief of Freedmen and Refugees.” Cites the Freedmen’s Bureau as a constitutionally unwarranted act of “immense patronage” given the “condition of [the Union’s] fiscal affairs.” (Veto is sustained by two votes.)Executive Order Prohibiting Political Assessment of Customs House EmployeesFirst engagement between the U.S. Army and Nez Perce warriors. Major victory for the Nez PerceExecutive Order Preventing Federal Employees from Participating in Political ActivitiesTour of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island"Great Railroad Strike of 1877." Federal Troops ordered to restore order in Railroad strikes in West Virginia; Maryland (on 07/21) and PennsylvaniaTour of Vermont, New Hampshire, MassachusettsTour of Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, VirginiaNez Perce leader Chief Joseph surrenders, effectively ending the Nez Perce War of 1877, following the battle of Bear Paw Mountain, Montana TerritoryAfter firing officials at the NY Customs House, Hayes nominates 3 replacementsSenate rejects Hayes's nominees for Customs HouseFirst Annual Message to CongressPresident Hayes Signs the US-Samoan TreatyVeto of Bland-Allison Act requiring Treasury to purchase quantities of silver at market prices (Veto overridden, the only one of Hayes's vetoes overridden.)Signs Army Appropriations Act containing what has become known as the Posse Comitatus Act, prohibiting the use of the U.S. Army to "execute the laws" unless that use is explicitly authorized in law or by the ConstitutionSuspended Chester Arthur and Alonzo B. Corness from New York Customs HouseTour of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Ohio, and PennsylvaniaSecond Annual State of the Union MessagePresident Hayes resumes payments in gold for Civil War GreenbacksSenate confirms Hayes’s nominees for NY Customs HouseSigned Act (20 Stat 292) to allow women to practice before the Supreme CourtVeto of "An act to restrict the immigration of Chinese to the United States," which included terms to modify in part the 1869 Burlingame Treaty. Hayes argues that modifying an existing treaty "is not competent for Congress." He also warns that the restrictions in the legislation would put at risk "our citizens in ChinaProclamation Warning Against Unauthorized Settlement in the Indian TerritoryVetoes Army Appropriations Bill. Objected to language prohibiting use of troops at election sites "to keep peace at the polls."Vetoes "Act to Prohibit Military Interference at Elections." Hayes references his prior veto of 04/29/1879 and offers a detailed accounting of prior law relating to the use of the military by the National Government. He notes that under the legislation it would be unlawful to use the Army or Navy "to uphold the authority of the Government of the United States." Veto sustainedVetoes general Appropriations Bill. The Bill raises the same kinds of concerns raised in the message of 04/29/1879. "The supervision of the elections will be reduced to a mere inspection, without authority. . .to make the election a fair one." And, "on the day of an election, peace and good order are more necessary than on any other day of the year." The veto was sustainedVeto of "An act making appropriations for certain judicial expenditures." Again citing his veto of 04/29/1879, Hayes writes "It is not sought by the bill before me to repeal the election laws. Its object is to defeat their enforcement." The veto was sustainedVeto of "An act making appropriations to pay fees of the United States marshals and their general deputies." He notes that the bill has sections that are "identical in tenor and effect" to the bill he vetoed on 06/23/1879. Forces him to choose to continue essential functions or to approve legislation to which he has objected. This veto was sustainedTour of Ohio, Illinois, Kansas, and MissouriTransmits to Congress a draft bill to reclaim the marshes of the District of ColumbiaSupports Canal Across the Isthmus Between North and South AmericaVeto of "An act making appropriations to supply certain deficiencies in the appropriations for the service of the Government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880. Hayes observes, " Under these circumstances, to attempt in an appropriation bill the modification or repeal of these laws is to annex a condition to the passage of needed and proper appropriations, which tends to deprive the Executive of that equal and independent exercise of discretion and judgment which the Constitution contemplates."Vetoes for third time bill about paying Deputy Marshals. Includes strong statement defending national sovereignty. This veto was unchallengedExtended tour including Iowa, Illinois, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, California, Oregon, Washington, Arizona, New Mexico. First Presidential trip to West Coast. Visits YosemiteJames A. Garfield is Elected to Succeed President HayesTwo treaties negotiated with China, one regulating immigration, the other tradeFourth Annual State of the Union MessageExecutive order to ban sale of intoxicating liquors on Army postsVeto of Act to Facilitate Refunding of the National DebtInaugural Address. Garfield expresses his view that the gold standard is the safest foundation for the American monetary systemCabinet nominees are approved by the Senate. Among them is Robert Lincoln, son of the former President Abraham Lincoln, as Secretary of War. Another is Thomas James, then postmaster of New York City as Postmaster General. James had a reputation as a reformer--important in light of spreading concern about corruption in the postal service (the so-called “star route” scandal). James’s nomination was opposed by New York Republican political boss Roscoe ConklingVice President Arthur twice casts the tie-breaking vote in the Senate to select the Republican slate of Committees and chairsSends the Senate nominations for important Federal offices in New York and elsewhere. The Senate doesn't like his appointments and tries to filibuster to get others appointed.About this date, decides to remove the "second assistant postmaster general" who is suspected of involvement in corruption (known as the "Star Routes" issue) and urges Postmaster James to undertake a through inquiry into the corruptionIn an interview with the Philadelphia Press denies any political motive in nominating RobertsonNotifies the Senate of withdrawal of five nominations made on 03/22/1881. The goal is to end the filibuster in the Senate. This opens the way for confirmation of Robertson. In private communications, Garfield states that winning Robertson's appointment is an assertion of Executive authoritySenators Roscoe Conkling and Thomas Platt resign from the Senate in a protest against Garfield’s appointments. Apparently, they expect to win immediate reelection in a special election. That did not occurSenate confirms Robertson as collector of customs for the port of New YorkThe first local chapter of the American Association of the Red Cross is organized by Clara Barton in her Washington D.C. home with the support and advice of President Garfield. Garfield planned to advocate for the 1864 Geneva Convention, ratified by the US in 1882Charles J. Guiteau, a deranged lawyer who supported the Stalwart faction of the Republican party, shoots President Garfield. The attack occurred at a Washington DC train station. Garfield lingers in gradually declining health for two months at the White House. In early September he is moved to the Jersey shore, to the village of ElberonOpening of the Tuskegee Normal School under the leadership of Booker T. Washington. Teacher salaries had been funded by the Alabama Legislature in a bill passed 02/12/1881. Washington established the curriculum emphasizing practical skills and self-helpPresident Garfield succumbs and dies. Vice President Chester A. Arthur becomes the President of the United StatesAnnouncement of the assassination of President James A. Garfield. Chester Arthur assumes presidency. Public sentiment strongly supports efforts to strengthen a non-partisan civil service systemProclamation 250—Day of Mourning for James A. Garfield. President Arthur issued a proclamation declaring September 26th a day of mourning for former President James A. GarfieldReads an Inaugural Address following a public ceremony to administer the Oath of Office in the Vice-President's room at the Capitol.Address at the Yorktown Centennial Celebration. Calls for preserving a precious legacy, "the love of liberty protected by law."Executive Order (read aloud by the Secretary of State at the event) directing that upon the conclusion of ceremonies commemorating the centennial of the British surrender at Yorktown, the "British flag shall be saluted by the forces of the Army and Navy of the United States."The murder trial of Charles Guiteau, the accused assassin of former president James A. Garfield, begins in disorder and controversy. Convicted on January 25, 1882, and executed on June 30, 1882Invitations sent to South American republics inviting them to a Pan American Conference in November 1882First Annual State of the Union MessageIt is reported that Secretary of State James G. Blaine will resign effective 12/19/1881. Arthur is not enthusiastic about the planned Pan American Congress, advocated strongly by Blaine. The conference is eventually realized under President Benjamin HarrisonThe New York Times (12/09/1891, p 1) reports that Arthur has taken up residence at the White HouseSigns Act reapportioning the House of Representatives based on the 1880 census. The total number of representatives was increased to 325Accedes to the Geneva Convention of 1864 (22 Stat 940) relative to the protection and care of wounded war personnel. The accession is concurred in by the Senate on 03/16/1882 and proclaimed on 07/26/1882Signs Amended Antipolygamy Act (also known as the Edmunds Act) making it a felony for Americans to marry multiple spousesVetoes the First Chinese Exclusion Act. The bill would have prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers to the United States for twenty years. Arthur believed that the suspension of immigration for twenty years was too extremeSends Special Message requesting the opinion of Congress regarding the proposed Pan-American Congress. He cites persisting differences among the countries invitedProclamation 253—Law and Order in the Territory of Arizona. Troops used to suppress raiding Chiricahua Apache and outlaw gangs stealing cattleSigns Chinese Exclusion Act (22 Stat 59), suspending the immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years. Arthur signed the Act as it was a modified to respond to his objections to the bill he previously vetoed on 04/04/1882Signs bill (22 Stat 64) calling for the President to appoint a Tariff Commission, subject to Senate advice and consent, to report to Congress on revisions to existing tariff "upon a scale of justice to all interests." The Commission submits its report to the House on 12/04/1882United States signs peace treaty with Korea ("Kingdom of Corea or Chosen"). The treaty recognized the independence of Korea in light of military threats from surrounding nations. The Senate approves on 01/09/1883; the President ratifies on 02/13/1883; finalized treaty is proclaimed on 06/04/1883Garfield assassin, Charles Julius Guiteau, is executed by hanging, two days before the first anniversary of Garfield’s assassination. It becomes apparent that Guiteau suffered from psychosis and claimed that God would offer protection over his actionVetoes Steamboat Safety Bill. Arthur vetoed the bill as he believed it was phrased incorrectlyConclusion of the U.S.-Mexico Convention of 1882. (22 Stat 986). Provides an international boundary survey to relocate the frontier line between the U.S. and Mexico territory to the west of Rio Grande. Ratified by President Arthur 11/07/1892. Treaty proclaimed on 3/5/1883Vetoes River and Harbor Act. Arthur believed that the appropriations set out for the repairs of rivers and harbors were excessiveMidterm Elections. Based on the recent 1880 census results, the size of the House increased by 32 seats. Democrats gain the majority in the House (going from 44% to 60%) but lose the majority in the Senate (going from 55% to 49%). So in terms of congressional support, Arthur's position in weakenedSecond Annual State of the Union MessageSigns The Civil Service Reform Act (Pendleton Act). Arthur opposed civil service reform, although he still signed the Act after recognizing its importanceIn United States v. Harris the Supreme Court holds that part of the Force Act of 1871 is unconstitutional. The Court says that the Fourteenth Amendment applies only to the acts of states, not of individuals (i.e., members of the Klan). The power to punish crimes like assault and murder is reserved to the States under the 10th AmendmentMexico Treaty of 1883. United States signs peace treaty with Mexico under commercial and revenue considerations of goods traded between the U.S. and MexicoExtemporaneous Remarks to a large crowd in Washington DC on the occasion of the Birthday of George Washington. The President states his view that no state had a right to secede, and thus once defeated—and yielding—in the rebellion, and swearing loyalty to the Union, there is no Constitutional basis for keeping states from being represented in Congress. Holding contrary views is actually treasonous. Provoked by the crowd, he names three traitors. He also offers to be a martyr for the ConstitutionSigns "An Act to reduce internal-revenue taxation" (22 Stat 488), also known as the Mongrel Tariff Act). Reduces taxes on an array of products including tobacco. A major portion of the law involves tariff changes, reducing rates on (chemicals, glassware, metals, wood, sugar, cotton, liquor, etc.). Observers subsequently noted that the act did not seem to increase trade. The Congressional procedures used were unusual and involved several lasting innovationsVetoes the Civil Rights Act (14 Stat 27) following Congress’s failure to pass the Freedmen’s Bureau Act. Cites provisions as “made to operate in favor of the colored and against the white race,” in addition to interfering with State municipal legislation. Congress overrides the vetoSigns Act increasing Naval appropriationsSpecial Message to Congress recommending changes in the 07/02/1862 Oath of Office Act to eliminate a requirement that the office-holder swear they had not been an active participant in the rebellion. Forwards reports from the Treasury Department and the Post Office outlining the difficulties resulting from the required oathSigns Act Reducing internal-revenue taxation (22 Stat 488). The Act eliminated excise taxes on most items, excluding tobacco and liquor products, and repealed the "stamp taxes" on bank checks, drafts, orders, and vouchersThree days of racial violence in Memphis, TN left at least 48 dead, 46 of them of the black. Black neighborhoods were destroyed; businesses burglarized or burnedSigns Act (22 Stat 453) providing increased pension benefits to any pensioner who has been "otherwise so disabled as to be incapacitated for performing any manual labor." The law did not specify that the incapacity arises from military service nor did it define the meaning of "performing manual labor." This generated an increased demand for pension benefits and controversial bureaucratic decisionsThe Fenian Raid and The Battle of Ridgeway occur in British-held territory in Canada. Issues Proclamation 155 urging many of the actors, who are Civil War veterans, to refrain from attacking the areaAttends the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge, the first bridge connecting New York City and BrooklynCongress passes and sends the 14th Amendment to the states for ratification following displeasure with President Johnson’s leniency toward the former Confederate states. The Amendment grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including those formerly enslaved. The Amendment, when later ratified, overturns the Dred Scott decision of 1857A jury returns a result of “not guilty as indicted” against twelve who had been accused of conspiracy and fraud in the “Star Route” corruption trialRadical Republicans who resign from the Johnson Cabinet are replaced by moderates who favor his positions: William Dennison, James Speed, and JamesIssues Executive Order reducing Internal Revenue collection districts from 126 to 83. APP has not located the official text of this order, although it was prominently noted in the Annual Message, Reports of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, and newspapers. The case is interesting because of the apparently high degree of personal presidential involvement in consolidation decisions, and the fact that the reduction in previously filled patronage positions made this an action of real partisan significanceVetoes “An Act to continue in force and to amend ‘An Act to establish a Bureau for the Relief of Freedmen and Refugees’ and for other Purposes” (14 Stat 173). Questions why “this war measure” should be “continued beyond the period designated in the original act,” since the war has ended. Congress overrides this veto the same dayExecutive Orders relating to Indian reservesIssues Special Message permitting Tennessee to formally re-enter the Union after the state ratifies the 14th AmendmentPursuant to the ratification of the Peace Treaty of 05/22/1882, greets the Corean (i.e., Korean) Ambassador on an official visit to New YorkIn New Orleans, a mob attacks delegates to a Louisiana Constitutional. The resulting racial violence was eventually controlled by Federal troops, but not before at least 37 were dead and 100 more wounded. General Phil Sheridan wrote Ulysses Grant that “It was no riot. It was an absolute massacre by the police. . . “Third Annual State of the Union MessageIssues Proclamation 157 declaring peace, order, tranquillity, and civil authority now exist throughout the entirety of the United States of AmericaIssues Executive Order amending the Civil Service Act approved 01/16/1883. The order ensures that all regular civil service applicants provide proper certificates of mental and physical aptitude and sets the age limit for admission to classified postal and customs servicesEmbarks on “Swing Around the Circle” speaking tour. Visits the states of Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Michigan, Illinois, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio. Defends leniency toward the ex-Confederate states, attacks congressional enemies, and criticizes the 14th Amendment in his speechesProclamation 257—100th Anniversary of the Surrender by George Washington of His Commission as Commander in ChiefRemarks in Buffalo, New York. Outlines his view that the South has met the conditions for re-joining governmentRemarks in Cleveland, Ohio. Replies “Why not hang Thad Stevens and Wendell Phillips?” to a crowd member who had yelled “Hang Jeff Davis!” In response to another remark from the crowd says “I care not for dignity.” After these exchanges press reporting is more criticalIllinois Governor Richard J. Oglesby and the Chicago City Council refuse to attend Johnson’s speech in ChicagoAccuses Radical Republicans of inciting the New Orleans Massacre in St. Louis speechIn Indianapolis, one man is killed during riots and gunfire following the President’s speechThirteen audience members are killed after temporary platform collapses during speech in Johnstown, Pennsylvania. Press reports Johnson and party as abandoning the disaster, drawing more negative tour coverage. Johnson provides victims $500 in compensation, worth $8,841.13 as of 2022Following a notice from the Secretary of War, issues Executive Order preparing the U.S. Military for possible action in Baltimore, following rumours of insurrection surrounding the city’s upcoming electionsMidterm Elections. Republicans increased their majority in the House to 76% (from 70%) and in the Senate to 83% (from 72%). This weakened Johnson politically in issues especially touching on reconstruction; foreshadowing his impeachmentSecond Annual Message to CongressIssues Special Message to the House of Representatives responding to inquiry regarding American troops in Mexican territoryVetoes “An Act to regulate the elective franchise in the District of Columbia.” The bill would give voting rights to “people of color” without any demonstration of “qualifications requiring intelligence or property.” Johnson points out that in “special elections” held in December 1866, qualified voters in the District overwhelmingly opposed this change. The veto is overridden on 01/08/1867Vetoes “An act for the admission of the State of Nebraska into the Union.” Objects to requiring that Nebraska not deny the vote “to any person by reason of race or color, excepting Indians not taxed. . .” That condition was not previously required or specified. The veto is overridden on 02/09/1867Issues Proclamation 164 declaring Nebraska’s formal admission to the UnionVetoes the “Tenure of Office Act” requiring the President to seek Senate advice and consent before removing an appointee from office. The message reviews at length the history of limitations on the removal power, concluding that it had long been settled that the Presidential removal power did not require Senate advice and consent. The veto is overridden on the same day (14 Stat 430). Conflict over this issue is at the heart of Johnson’s later impeachmentVetoes First Reconstruction Act (14 Stat 428). Insists Southerners are “united in the effort to reorganize their society...as rapidly and as completely as their circumstances will permit.” Congress overrides the veto, dividing the South, except for Tennessee, into five military districts for governanceVetoes Second Reconstruction Act (15 Stat 2), expressing displeasure with Congress requiring Southern states to form new “loyal and republican” constitutions. Congress overrides the veto the same day, authorizing military commanders to call elections in the SouthTransmits Alaska treaty for ratification by Congress in Special Message. Secretary of State William Seward agrees to a treaty with Russia allowing the U.S. government to purchase Alaska, dubbed “Seward’s Icebox,” for $7.2 million. The Senate ratified on 04/09/1867Issues Proclamation 165 to convene an extra session of the SenateAbout this time, delegates from Ku Klux Klan groups across the South meet in Nashville, TN. Some research shows that former Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest was made “Grand Wizard” of the entire organizationFormer Confederate President Jefferson Davis is transferred to civilian custody from Fort Monroe, and released on bail. Among those signing his bail document was Horace Greeley the Northern abolitionist and publisherProclaims ratified treaty with Russia for acquisition of AlaskaEmbarks on the “Southern Tour” of Virginia and North Carolina to promote his reconstruction policies and American unityEmbarks on Tour of New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Maryland, Connecticut to further promote his reconstruction policies and American unityVetoes Third Reconstruction Act (15 Stat 14). Accuses Congress of acting inconsistently by declaring local Southern governments illegal yet appointing Federal officers to oversee them. Congress overrides the veto the same day, establishing election procedures in the SouthVetoes the “Joint Resolution [H.J. Res 71] to carry into effect the several acts. . . “ (i.e., the Reconstruction Acts) by appropriating $1 Million. References his previous vetoes. The veto is overridden on the same dayIssues Executive Order to “suspend from office” radical Republican Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. (The Tenure of Office Act permitted suspension when Congress was not in session.) Designates General Ulysses S. Grant as Secretary of War ad interimThe United States takes formal control of the Midway Islands in the Pacific, led by Captain William Reynolds of the USS LackawannaThird Annual Message to CongressIssues Special Message to the Senate defending his suspension of former Secretary of War Edwin M. StantonThe Senate refuses to concur with President Johnson’s suspension of former Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton and reinstates himIssues Executive Order to dismiss Edwin M. Stanton as Secretary of War. Stanton barricades himself in his office for nearly two months. Johnson’s action violates the Tenure of Office Act and begins the impeachment crisisThe House of Representatives votes to impeach Johnson for his dismissal of Stanton and violation of the Tenure of Office ActThe House of Representatives drafts 11 Articles of Impeachment and brings them before the SenateThe impeachment trial begins in the Senate. Johnson does not appear at trial on the advice of counsel but agrees to numerous press conferences during the proceedingsSupreme Court decides Grisar v. McDowell, concerning disposition of public lands in the past by President Fillmore. The ruling underscores presidential unilateral powers. The Court concluded “from an early period in the history of the government it has been the practice of the President to order, from time to time, as the exigencies of the public service required, parcels of land belonging to the United States to be reserved from sale and set apart for public uses.”Vetoes the Act amending the Judiciary Act of 1789. The Act restricted the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court (apparently with the goal of limiting the Court’s jurisdiction in a specific pending case Ex parte McCardle). Johnson points out that the bill alters Court jurisdiction “on appeals that have already been made to that high judicial body.” The veto is overridden on 03/27/1868The Senate fails 35-19 to convict President Johnson on 3 of 11 articles in the impeachment trial, falling one vote short of the required two-thirds majorityThe Republican National Convention nominates Ulysses S. Grant for President and Schuyler Colfax for Vice PresidentThe Senate fails to convict Johnson on articles 2 and 3 in the impeachment trial. The Senate acquits Johnson and adjourns as a court of impeachmentVetoes “An Act to Admit the State of Arkansas to Representation in Congress.” Argues legislation is unnecessary because the Constitution already declares each State entitled to congressional representation. Congress overrides the veto on 06/22/1868Vetoes “An Act to admit the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, to Representation in Congress” (15 Stat 73). Repeats objections made in Veto of Act concerning Arkansas’ congressional representation. Argues legislation is unnecessary because the Constitution already declares each State entitled to congressional representation. Congress overrides the VetoThe Democratic National Convention nominates Horatio Seymour for President and Francis P. Blair Jr. for Vice PresidentIssues Proclamation 170, granting pardons to all participants in the Rebellion except those currently under indictment for treason or other feloniesTransmits Burlingame Treaty for ratification by Congress in Special Message. The Treaty establishes formal, friendly relations between the U.S. and China, and grants China “most favored nation” status in tradeVetoes a Joint Resolution “excluding from the electoral college the votes of States lately in rebellion which shall not have been reorganized.” Argues that because secession is unconstitutional, the States in fact never left the union or forfeited their rights. The veto was overridden on the same dayVetoes “An act relating to the Freedmen’s Bureau. . . “ on the grounds that it interferes with the President’s Constitutional power of appointment. The veto was overridden on the same dayDirects Ulysses Grant to issue General Orders No 82 to regulate elections in southern statesElection Day. Republican candidate General Ulysses S. Grant defeats Democratic candidate Horatio Seymour, earning 300,000 more popular votesFourth and Final Annual Message to CongressBy Proclamation 179, grants Full Pardon and Amnesty for the Offense of Treason (but not for other crimes) to “all and to every person who, directly or indirectly, participated in the late insurrection or rebellion.” This ended the prosecution of Jefferson Davis for treasonVetoes an Act regulating duties on imported copper and copper ores. Objects that this will damage consumers primarily to the benefit of “certain mining interests upon Lake Superior.” The veto is overridden on 02/24/1869Andrew Johnson refuses to attend Ulysses S. Grant’s inauguration ceremony, where Grant takes the oath of office as President of the United States“Warmly receives” the first prominent black public official ever to visit the White House, Lt. Governor Oscar J. Dunn of LouisianaIn Special Message, advocates for election in Virginia under the new state constitution to expedite Union readmission processSigns act (16 Stat 40) authorizing submission of the Constitutions of Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas to a vote of the People on the day the President deems best for the public interest. Allows the President to require separate votes on specific provisions in the Constitutions. Prior to admission of representation to Congress, the state legislatures must ratify the 15thAmendmentSigns Judiciary Act (16 Stat 44) increasing the number of Supreme Court Justices from seven to nine. This is the last change in the size of the Supreme CourtApproves Act (16 Stat 45) granting married women property rights in the District of ColumbiaCompletion of the first transcontinental railroad, the first continuous railroad line across the United States. Ceremonies are held in Promontory, UtahBy Proclamation 181, pursuant to Law enacted on 04/10/1869, directs that the draft Constitution for Virginia be submitted to voters for ratification on 07/06/1869Proclamation 182 clarifying Federal 8-hour a day policyParticipated in memorial service at Arlington CemeteryBy Proclamation 184, pursuant to the Law enacted on 04/10/1869, designates 11/30/1869 as time for submitting for voter approval Constitution drafted in Mississippi. Requires separate votes on some provisionsIn a Letter to the President of the Dominican Republic announces the appointment of his long-time aide, Orville Babcock as a special agent to gather information about Santo DomingoBy Proclamation 185, directs that the draft Constitution for the state of Texas should be submitted to voter approval on 11/30/1869"Black Friday" financial panic ensues after the price of gold crashesFirst Annual Message to CongressTransmits to the Senate for consideration an annexation treaty with Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic). The treaty had been signed on 11/29/1869 and included a provision that the Dominican Republic could, in the future, be admitted as a State. Grant saw many benefits in the proposed annexation including control of a strategically important port, natural resources to use, and a potential destination for many former US slavesVeto Message rejects the Rollin White Private Relief Bill denying White’s claim of revolver patent infringement. Claimed White’s patent prevented Union manufacturers from making repeating revolvers during the Civil War. (Veto is overridden in the Senate, sustained in the House.)Signs Executive Order addressing Virginia’s readmission to the Union, which occurred on 01/26/1870Signs Joint Resolution providing for the Secretary of War to take meteorological observations a give notice “of the approach and force of storms.” (16 Stat 369) A new agency was formed in the Army Signal Service called the “Division of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Commerce.” In 1890 that Division became the Weather Bureau in the Department of AgricultureSigns Executive Order addressing Mississippi’s readmission to the Union, which occurred on 02/23/1870In Special Message, urges Senate to ratify Santo Domingo annexation treaty before expiration dateIn interview with New York Herald, reprinted in other newspapers as well, makes the case for annexation of Santo DomingoNotifies Congress in Special Message of his approval of the Fifteenth Amendment, which grants males of all races the right to voteSigns Executive Order addressing the readmission of Texas to the Union, which occurred on 03/30/1870Special Message transmitting a treaty with Colombia for construction of an interoceanic canal across the Isthmus of Panama. This project is realized during the administration of Theodore Roosevelt. (On July 13, 1870, reported from the Committee on Foreign Relations with a recommendation that it be ratified.)Issues Proclamation 192 warning against the Fenian Brotherhood's raids on British Army territory in CanadaSigns First Enforcement Act of 1870 prohibiting official and private limitations on the right to vote, including acts of intimidation; makes it a federal crime to form groups with the intent to violate citizens’ constitutional rights including by going “in disguise upon the public highways, or upon the premises of another.” The Act also made it a crime to knowingly violate Section 3 of the 14th Amendment, which prohibited office-holding by former officials who had sworn to uphold the ConstitutionTransmits to Senate in Special Message an agreement permitting more time to ratify Santo Domingo annexation treatySigns Act (16 Stat 162) to establish Department of JusticeSanto Domingo annexation treaty is rejected by Congress by a vote of 28-28. Senators cite the island’s political instability, corruption, and mixed-race populationIn Special Message, communicates importance of building tighter commercial links with Latin American nationsSigns the Tariff Act of 1870 (16 Stat 256) establishing a duty on most fruit imported into the United States. Act is the precursor for 1872 revisions that involved a famous typoAt request of North Carolina Governor William Holden, directs Secretary of War to provide troops to suppress Ku Klux Klan violenceProclamation 192 announces US neutrality in war between France and North German Coalition (Prussia)Second Annual Message to Congress. Urges Congress to consider reimposing military rule in parts of the South with Klan violenceSpecial Message to the Senate on “outrages” in North Carolina. Forwards War Department accounts of racist and partisan violence in the former ConfederacySpecial Message to the Senate on “disloyal organizations” intended to resist the laws or to deprive citizens of the United States of the protection of law or the enjoyment of their rights under the Constitution.” The attachments further recount racist and partisan violence across the South, emphasizing the Ku Klux KlanSigns Second Enforcement Act of 1871 (16 Stat 433), placing national election administration under federal government control while empowering United States judges and marshals to supervise local polling placesIn Act (16 Stat 440), creates the Steamboat Inspection Service with central office in the Treasury Department. Provides inspectors with authority to enforce detailed steamship safety regulationsSigns the Appropriations Act including language authorizing the President to prescribe rules and regulations for the civil service (16 Stat 514). Grant establishes the Civil Service Commission as an advisory boardSigns Indian Appropriations Act (16 Stat 544), stating that "hereafter no Indian nation or tribe. . . shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty (16 Stat 566)." The act also prohibits any "contract or agreement of any kind" with "any tribe of Indians" unless approved by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Secretary of the Interior, and in writingIn Special Message, refutes claims of presidential corruption during Santo Domingo’s attempted annexationSigns Third Enforcement Act of 1871 also known as the Ku Klux Klan Act), empowering presidential use of armed force to combat voter discrimination and allowing suspension of habeas corpus to enforce the act if necessary.Issues Proclamation 199, warning citizens to abstain from committing any acts prohibited in the Third Enforcement Act of 1871By Special Message, transmits to the Senate for ratification the Treaty of Washington, (signed by negotiators on 05/08/1871) to resolve questions between the United States and Great Britain. Senate ratifies on 05/24/1871, Grant ratifies treaty on 05/25/1871. Treaty is Proclaimed on 07/04/1871About this date, the Haden Geological Expedition, in the midst of surveying the Wyoming Territory, begins exploring and documenting the the Yellowstone Valley, later a National ParkIn response to public outcry, a citizens committee, “The Committee of Seventy” was formed in New York City to investigate frauds committed by Tammany Hall under the leadership of “Boss” William Tweed. Attendees at a meeting heard a rousing speech by R. B. Roosevelt uncle of the future presidentThe Great Chicago Fire devastates Chicago, Illinois. On 10/09/1871 Grant by Telegram directs Lt. Gen. Phillip H. Sheridan to render all possible aid for victims of the fireIssues Proclamation 200 citing the authority of the Third Enforcement Act of 04/20/1871 against the Ku Klux Klan in South Carolina, ordering all members to retire and surrender their resources to the United States governmentBy Proclamation 201, suspends the Writ of Habeas Corpus in nine South Carolina countiesThird Annual Message to CongressRemoves Attorney General Amos Akerman from office. A vigorous anti-Klan enforcer, Akerman apparently had offended powerful Republican railroad interestsIn a Special Message addresses the first Civil Service Commission. He had established this advisory committee under a law passed on 03/04/1871. The Message transmits their report and suggests further legislation may be beneficialSigns Act creating Yellowstone Park, “a certain Tract of Land lying near the Head-waters of the Yellowstone River.” The land “shall be set apart as a public park or pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people.”(17 Stat 32). Adminstration is placed “under the exclusive control of the Secretary of the Interior” who was charged to “provide against the wanton destruction of the fish and game” in the parkBy Proclamation, appoints a three-member commission to study alternative routes for an Isthmian canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific OceansSigns An Act for the Relief of Sufferers by Fire at Chicago (17 Stat 51), ordering aid for Chicago Fire victims provided free of charge may be exempted from any import dutyVeto Message, first presidential veto of a private pension bill, an act granting a person money from the federal governmentIn Special Message to the House of Representatives, informs congressional members of the Ku Klux Klan’s actions in South CarolinaLiberal Republican Convention in Cincinnati, nominates Horace Greeley for PresidentSigns “An Act to promote the Development of the mining Resources of the United States.” (17 Stat 91) The Act declared that mineral deposits in public lands are “free and open to exploration and purchase. . . by citizens of the United States.”Signs the "Amnesty Act". It addressed Section 3 of the 14th Amendment which prohibits office-holding at the State or Federal level by any person who has taken an oath to support the Constitution and engaged in rebellion. The Act removed this "disability" except for members of of the US Congress and holders of high office in the US serving from 1861-1865. The Amendment permits Congress to remove the disability by a vote of two-thirds of each House.By Proclamation, directs the Department of Justice to discontinue prosecution of individuals holding office barred to them under the 3rd section of the 14th AmendmentForesees “probable failure” of the Washington TreatyNational Union Republican Convention in Philadelphia re-nominates Grant unanimously. Grant formally accepts the nomination on 06/10/1872Signs Tariff Act of 1872 (17 Stat 230) a revision of the Tariff Act of 1870. The text as printed included a typographical error (see 17 Stat 235) removing tariffs from imported fruit instead of “fruit-plants.” The error cost the United States roughly $2 million in government revenue, worth an estimated $46 million as of 2022National Democratic Convention, Baltimore, adopts the platform of the Liberal Republicans and also endorses their nominees as the Democratic candidatesReport of the Arbitration Panel under the Treaty of Washington, awards the United States $15.1 million for damages caused by British-built warships and illegal fishing. This method of resolving international disputes was novel and an important precedent; it consolidated the “special relationship” between the U.S. and Great BritainElection Day. Grant wins with 82% of the electoral vote and 56% of the popular vote, defeating Democrat Horace Greely. Republicans retain strong majorities in the House and the SenateFourth Annual Message to CongressThe House of Representatives commences investigation of Credit Mobilier and the Union Pacific RailroadSigns the Coinage Act (17 Stat 424) establishing the mint as a bureau of the Treasury Department and specifying details about official coinage. Controversially, the Act did not authorize a silver dollar for domestic use (although it did authorize smaller coins—50-cents, 25-cents, and 10-cents, and a so-called “trade dollar”). The Act limited the legal tender use of silver to transactions not exceeding $5.00 in any one payment. Because of the limitations on silver, the Act became known as “The Crime of ’73.”Signs the controversial Salary Grab Act (17 Stat 485) one day before second-term inauguration, raising presidential, Supreme Court judicial, and congressional salariesSigns the Compstock Act (17 Stat 598) "An act for the Suppression of Trade in, and Circulation of obscene Literature and Articles of immoral Use." This act, among other things, prohibited the postal service from delivering mail with such items including "any drug or medicine, or any article whatever, for the prevention of conception, or for causing unlawful abortion . . ." In December 2022 the Office of Legal Counsel published an opinion tracing the history of judicial rulings related to this matterSecond Inaugural AddressApproves more civil service rules in an Executive OrderEuropean stock market crash initiates Panic of 1873, as American railroad and bank failure spurs financial crisisFifth Annual State of the Union MessageIn Special Message, informs Congress of resolution with Spain concerning the capture of U.S. ship Virginius on 10/31/1873Signs an Act (18 Stat 4) repealing congressional salary increases passed in the Salary Grab Act of 03/03/1873 after public outcry and protestVetoes Inflation Bill arguing it would destroy the nation’s credit. (Veto is sustained in the Senate)Issues Proclamation 220, ordering dispersal of white supremacist paramilitary organization the “White League” in LouisianaMidterm elections produce very large gains for Democrats in the House. Democrats gained 94 seats to achieve a 62% majority. This was the first Democratic majority in the House since the Civil War. Democrats had the majority in the House almost continuously until 1895. Republicans retained the Senate majority in 1874The first National Convention of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) meets in Cleveland, Ohio. The WCTU was influential not only in passing Prohibition, but also in promoting women’s suffrageSixth Annual State of the Union MessageSigns the Hawaiian Reciprocity Treaty, allowing for free trade between the U.S. and Hawaii and granting the U.S. special economic privilegesIn Special Message, issues report on Louisiana’s controversial 1872 gubernatorial election and defends federal military interference with the White League’s crimesSigns Specie Resumption Act (18 Stat 296) and sends Congress a Special Message announcing his approval. Among other things, the bill announced restoration of exchange of us “legal tender notes” for coins starting 01/01/1879Signs Civil Rights Act of 1875 (18 Stat 335), guaranteeing all citizens, regardless of color, access to public accommodations and service on juriesTwo hundred and thirty-eight people are accused of conspiring in the “Whiskey Ring Scandal,” charging distillers and Treasury Department officials with colluding to evade liquor taxes. Upon further investigation, Grant’s Private Secretary Orville E. Babcock is later implicatedIn a Letter to Harry White, President of the Pennsylvania Republican Convention, says “I am not, nor have I been, a candidate for a renomination.” This is later republished in many newspapersReceived a letter from an admirer warning of threats from Whiskey Ring members threatening to implicate General Babcock, Grant’s assistant. Grant forwards the letter to the Secretary of the Treasury, Benjamin Bristow, with a note, or Endorsement (pages 231-232) expressing his desire that the Whiskey Ring prosecution should “Let no guilty man escape. . . .” Grant’s statement was widely published around the country beginning on 08/10/1875Speech to Society of Army of Tennessee meeting in Des Moines, Iowa. Widely published with great interest. Grant expresses the importance of public education in preserving freedom and democracy in the United State. Grant’s lively interest in policy innovation added to speculation that he might seek a third termAnnounces the death of Vice President Henry Wilson in Executive Order. Wilson’s death marked the fourth time a Vice President died while in officePrivate Secretary Orville E. Babcock is indicted and charged with “conspiracy to defraud the Treasury of the United States” in the Whiskey Ring Scandal. Every participant previously charged has been convictedSeventh Annual MessageHouse of Representatives adopts the Springer Resolution, declaring that a President seeking a third term contrary to prior precedent “would be unwise, unpatriotic, and fraught with peril to our free institutions.” This is seen as a warning to Grant and mistrust of his earlier announced intentions not to runVetoes Act Fixing the Salary of the President, citing the nation’s ever-evolving circumstances and cost of livingIn Special Message, objects to informing Congress (as proposed in a House Resolution passed 04/03/1876) each time he is absent from the “seat of Government.” Tartly rejects any notion that the President’s executive duties can only be performed in Washington, DC. He itemizes the absences from Washington of many of his predecessorsThe Republican National Convention, on the seventh ballot, nominates Rutherford B. Hayes for President and William A. Wheeler for Vice PresidentGeneral George A. Custer and 266 Americans are killed by Sioux Indians in the Battle of Little Bighorn, intensifying anti-Native American sentiment and negating Grant’s Peace PolicyThe Democratic National Convention nominates Samuel J. Tilden for President and Thomas A. Hendricks for Vice PresidentBy Proclamation 230, announces Colorado has joined the UnionElection Day. Results are inconclusive. Democrat Samuel Tilden wins the popular vote, but is one electoral vote shy of the number needed to defeat Republican Rutherford B. Hayes. Twenty electoral votes from three states are heavily disputedSigns Executive Order banning sale of fixed ammunition and metallic cartridges to Native AmericansEighth Annual Message to CongressIn Special Message, approves of electoral commission established by Congress to resolve disputed 1876 presidential electionThe Compromise of 1877 is the basis for settling the 1876 presidential election. Democrats concede the Presidency to Republican Rutherford B. Hayes in exchange for the complete withdrawal of federal troops from the South. The agreement confirms the end of the Reconstruction Era and ushers in Jim Crow lawsSenate accepts the Compromise of 1877. Electoral commission awards disputed electoral votes to Hayes, who becomes presidentOath of office privately administered to Rutheford B. Hayes at White HousePresident Hayes Inaugurated in public ceremonyHayes Cabinet nominations sent to the Senate; opposition to Cabinet from Senate leadersFrederick Douglass appointed US Marshal for District of ColumbiaAbout this date, President Hayes “orders away” remaining Federal troops from Southern states, marking the end of reconstructionFirst telephone installed in the White HouseDemocratic National Convention in St. Louis, MO. Cleveland renominated on June 6. Official Letter of nomination presented to Cleveland on June 26Signs Act establishing a Department of Labor (25 Stat 182). The Department is to provide useful information on labor's "relation to capital, the hours of labor, the earnings of laboring men and women, and the means of promoting their material, social, intellectual, and moral prosperity."Senator Benjamin Harrison nominated for president at the Republican National ConventionCleveland Remarks on receiving official notification of his nomination for PresidentBy Letter, Cleveland formally accepts the Democratic Party NominationHarrison, by letter, formally accepts the Republican nominationSigns the Arbitration Act (25 Stat 501) providing for voluntary arbitration of railway disputes, and authorizing the President to appoint a commission to investigate labor disputes, reporting back to the President and Congress. This is a partial realization of legislation he requested on 04/22/1886Signs the Scott Act (25 Stat 504), prohibiting Chinese laborers who depart from the United States for any reason may not lawfully return to the United States. This is an amendment to the 1882 Chinese Exclusion ActElection Day. Cleveland wins the popular vote (with 48.6%) but loses the electoral vote to his opponent, Republican Benjamin Harrison (47.8% popular vote, 58.1% of electoral vote). Cleveland won more than 55% of the popular vote in Texas, South Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana, Georgia, Florida, Delaware, and AlabamaFourth Annual State of the Union MessageExecutive Order directing employees of the rail mail service to be added to the classified list, making them subject to examinationSigns an act to enlarge the powers and duties of the Department of Agriculture and to create an Executive Department to be known as the Department of AgricultureSigns an act (25 Stat 676) providing that the Territories of Dakota, Montana, and Washington, may become the States of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington; may form constitutions and, in the future, be admitted into the unionInauguration of Benjamin HarrisonBy Proclamation prohibits the hunting of fur-bearing animals in Alaska and the Bering SeaBy Proclamation opens land from the Muscogee and Seminole Indians available for settlementBy Proclamation celebrates the centennial of George Washington’s inaugurationExtensive tour of South and West, includes visits to California, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, and ColoradoAppoints Theodore Roosevelt, known as a reformer, to be a member of the Civil Service CommissionThe town of Johnstown, PA, about seventy miles east of Pittsburgh, was destroyed when the South Fork Dam, fourteen miles above the city, failed, during flooding rains. Deaths exceeded 2200. The disaster, The Great Johnstown Flood, drew national attention, and was the first time outside of war that the Red Cross organized relief efforts. Recovery was substantially organized by the Grand Army of the Republic, the association of Union veterans, and also involved the Army Corps of EngineersOffers Remarks and chairs an event at Willard Hall, Washington to raise money and donations for the relief of victims of the Johnstown FloodTreaty of Berlin establishes Samoan Islands Neutrality. The United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom agree in Berlin and establish a protectorate over the Samoan Islands. (26 Stat 1497) The treaty is ratified by the President on 02/21/1890 and proclaimed on 02/21/1890Summons Director of the Pension Office, James Tanner, to the White House for a warning that his "liberal" interpretation of the pension laws was on track to eliminate the Treasury surplusesTours the northeast with stops including New Jersey, New York, NY; Boston, MA, Bar Harbor, ME; New HampshireTours Indiana and OhioDemands the resignation of James Tanner, Pension Office Director in light of continuing controversy about his policies in granting pension applications. Tanner is offered another position as Marshall in the Southern District of New York. Tanner submits his resignation the next dayThe first meeting of the Pan American Conference is held in Washington. This had been authorized by law under the Cleveland Administration in 1888. Secretary of State James G. Blaine served as President of the Conference, but in many respects, it did not meet his objectives. A goal of the conference was for the United States to replace Great Britain as the dominant economic force in Latin America. The Conference adjourned on 04/19/1890Proclamation that North Dakota becomes a stateProclamation that South Dakota becomes a stateProclamation that Montana becomes a stateProclamation that Washington becomes a stateFirst Annual MessageBy Proclamation hunting of certain animals is banned in Alaska and the Bering Sea. This is an addition to a previous Proclamation made on 03/21/1889Executive order to allow federal officials to arrest those involved in unrest in the state of FloridaSigns an act that celebrates the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus by holding an international exhibition in Chicago (26 Stat 62). A corporation will be organized to manage the exposition with a capital stock of no less than ten million dollars; $20,000 is appropriated to support the admission of foreign goodsMessage to Congress transmitting a report from the International American Conference to survey a route for a potential intercontinental railroad to connect North and South AmericaSigns the Dependent Pension Bill (26 Stat 182), giving pensions to veterans who have served 90 days or more, and their families after they die. This leads to a large expansion in the number of pensioners and budgetary outlays. Scholars have seen this act as a forerunner of the modern social welfare stateSigns the Sherman Antitrust Act (26 Stat 209), intended to break up trusts operating in interstate commerce. "Ever contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is hereby declared to be illegal."Signs Act (26 Stat 215) admitting Idaho as a state--the forty-third state in the UnionSigns Act (26 Stat 222) admitting Wyoming as a state-- the forty-fourth stateSigns the Sherman Silver Purchase Act (26 Stat 289). This increased the amount of silver the government was allowed to buy each monthMessage to Congress concerning lotteries--"the robbery of the poor and the widespread corruption of public and private morals." Call for legislation to authorize the Post Office to "purge the mails of all letters, newspapers, and circulars relating to the business." Congress acts in September (bill signed 09/19/1890)Signs Act (26 Stat 465) prohibiting the use of the postal service for advertising or administering a lotterySigns the Tariff Act of 1890 (26 Stat 567), also known as the McKinley Tariff, which increases duties on imported goods. The bill was highly controversial since it expanded the power of the President when dealing with foreign tradeSpeaking tour to Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri. Hopes to counter appeal of burgeoning People’s PartySends Special Message to Congress recommending additional financial support for improvements of Mississippi RiverSigns Act to establish a standard of time in the District of ColumbiaSpecial Message to Congress, requesting additional funds for the reconstruction of the NavySends Special Message to Congress recommending an annual appropriation of $1.5 million for armament of fortificationsCongress passes bill (23 Stat 21) repealing the "Ironclad Oath" specified in law on 07/02/1862. Rather than requiring an oath that the individual has not previously engaged in disloyal conduct (i.e., "the rebellion") the new oath only requires a promise prospectively to "support and defend the Constitution. . . "Signs First Organic Act, which created the first civilian government in AlaskaFormer Secretary of State James G. Blaine defeats President Arthur on the fourth ballot for the nomination of the Republican National Convention. This is the last time an incumbent President seeking renomination is denied by his partyRemarks of Republican Nominee James G. Blaine on official notification of his nominationSigns Act establishing a Bureau of Labor as part of the Department of InteriorProclamation 259—Prohibition of Non-Indian Settlement of Oklahoma Lands in the Indian TerritoryVetoes relief of Fitz John Porter Bill. Arthur believed that the bill was an attempt by Congress to intrude on the authority of the Executive branchThe Statue of Liberty ("Liberty Enlightening the World" by the sculptor Bartholdi) is presented, in Paris, to United States, represented by the U.S. Ambassador. The Ambassador reported that the ceremony was "interesting and imposing." The Statue arrives in New York Harbor on June 17, 1885Signs Act creating Bureau of Navigation as part of the Treasury DepartmentSigns Act creating Central and South American CommissionDemocratic National Convention of 1884 meets in Chicago. Nominates Grover Cleveland and Thomas A. Hendricks for President and vice president, respectivelyLetter of Republican nominee James G. Blaine formally accepting the nominationRemarks of Democratic nominee, Grover Cleveland on receiving notification of his nominationLetter of Democratic nominee Grover Cleveland accepting the Democratic nominationDemocrat Grover Cleveland wins presidential bid against Republican and former Secretary of State James G. BlaineConclusion of the U.S.-Mexico Convention of 1884. Settles boundary line between the U.S. and Mexico territory along the bed of Rio Colorado. Ratified under President Grover Cleveland 6/23/1886. Treaty was proclaimed on 9/14/1886Fourth Annual State of the Union MessageAnnounces expiration of Treaty of Washington with Great Britain due July in the Third Annual Message, suggesting to Congress to create a special commission dedicated to the handling of rights in fisheriesThe Washington Monument is dedicated to George Washington in Washington, D.C. On the monument grounds, Arthur Addresses the dedication ceremony, remarking that “I do now ... in behalf of the people, receive this monument ... and declare it dedicated from this time forth to the immortal name and memory of George Washington.”Signs Act to prevent and provide penalties for illegal occupancy of public landsSigns Contract Labor Act. The Act prohibited contracting migrant workers to perform labor in the United StatesProposes listing Ulysses S. Grant to be general on the retired list of the Army and eligible for the appropriate pension. Arthur had on this same date signed legislation authorizing the president to appoint "one person" with rank and full pay (23 Stat 434). This provided pension support for Grant who had fallen into penuryIssues Executive Order closing several Executive Departments for Inauguration Day ceremoniesGrover Cleveland Inaugural AddressBy Proclamation prohibits non-native settlement of Oklahoma lands in Native American territoryThe Statue of Liberty arrives (unassembled) by boat on this day in New YorkFormer president Ulysses S. Grant dies, and all offices of the executive branch close at 1:00 p.m. in his memoryBy Proclamation prohibits "all persons other than Indians" from grazing cattle in the Cheyenne and Arapahoe Native reservationsBy Proclamation orders the forcible removal of "any and every unlawful enclosure" on public landBy Executive Order, as cholera spreads throughout Europe, Cleveland appoints a physician authorized to study the disease and prevent its spread to the United StatesBy Proclamation 274 declares that an emergency exists in the Territory of Washington that justifies the use of military force to restore order. The precipitating events included the Chinese Expulsion of Tacoma and other violence in Seattle directed against Chinese immigrants. Troops were deployed to Seattle, and later four companies left for TacomaExecutive Order on the occasion of the death in office of Vice President Thomas HendrickFirst Annual State of the Union MessageBy Special Message, informs Congress of the claim of Cheyenne Indians of Montana of the inadequacy of their appropriations. Request legislative authorization of additional fundsSigns the Presidential Succession Act into law (24 Stat 1), which specifies that, in case of the absence or inability of the President and Vice President, the Secretaries of the Executive Departments succeed to the presidency in order of creation of their departmentsBy Special Message, asks Congress to approve a bill authorizing the use of funds to purchase land in Miami from its Native American residentsBy Proclamation announces intent to use force against “unlawful assemblages” in Washington State amid anti-Chinese riots in Seattle. About 200 Chinese were eventually expelled by boat headed for San FranciscoIn a lengthy Special Message, objects to Senate Committee demands for all papers relating to the consideration of nominees to office--and thus to his exact reasoning in making a nomination. "They assume the right of the Senate to sit in judgment upon the exercise of my exclusive discretion and Executive function, for which I am solely responsible to the people from whom I have so lately received the sacred trust of office." Senate Republicans subsequently retreat from their demandsSpecial Message to Congress on the status of U.S.-China diplomatic relations following widespread anti-Chinese sentimentIn a lengthy message, vetoes an act to "quiet" the title of settlers on the Des Moines River lands, which would reclaim private land in Iowa as public. He argues that while there are many controversies related to this land, they can be appropriately settled by the State of Iowa and its courts. The Senate overrode the veto on 06/29/1886 but the House sustained it on 07/1/1886Special Message to Congress, asserting that labor is a vital element of national prosperity and should be of concern to the federal government. He calls for the establishment of an agency that would deal with the voluntary arbitration of labor disputes. He stated that workingmen feel there is a "discrimination in favor of capital as an object of governmental attention." This is apparently the first Presidential message on laborFollowing two days of very large labor rallies in favor of the eight-hour day, a relatively small group of demonstrators at the McCormick Reaper Plant was attacked by police resulting in one deathAt a demonstration to protest the police violence of 05/03/1886, a dynamite bomb was thrown--a "first" in US domestic conflict. Seven police and four workers died from the blast. Subsequently, 10 alleged anarchists were arrested and tried for murder (despite lack of evidence that any had possessed or thrown the bomb). On August 20, 1886, the defendants were found guilty. Four were hanged on November 10, 1886. This has become known as the Haymarket AffairVetoes two military pensions bills (Abigail Smith, and Andrew J. Hill). These are the first of 255 vetoes referring to pensions. Objects to passing special enactments that reverse decisions of the Pension Bureau. Calls such practice "exceedingly questionable" because the Bureau is better equipped than a Congressional committee "to judge the merits of these claims."Special Message calling for Congress to reassemble the Utah legislature for the purpose of reappropriating funds for the territory of UtahSpecial Message formally accepting the Statue of Liberty from FranceMarries Frances Folsom, becoming the first and only president to be married at the White House. The wedding is an object of intense media interest. The bride is 21 years oldVetoes an act to grant a pension to Joseph Romiser. The House overrode the veto on 07/16/1886 and the Senate overrode the veto on 08/03/1886 (24 Stat 870). Romiser, as a member of a volunteer company, was not clearly shown to be in the service of the United States military at the time of his injury (due to an accidental musket discharge). Cleveland objects that the veteran's pension is unjustified based on the facts of the caseVetoes an act to provide for the erection of a public building in the city of Dayton, Ohio. The Senate and the House overrode the veto on 03/03/1887 (24 Stat 544). Cleveland had objected that Dayton had only two public buildings that did not appear so inadequate as to justify an expense of $150,000By Proclamation suspends the import of goods on Spanish vessels from Cuba and Puerto Rico amid tensions with SpainRemarks at the unveiling and dedication of the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor on Bedloe's IslandSecond Annual State of the Union MessageThe American Federation of Labor is founded at a convention in Columbus, Ohio. The AFL (later joined with the Congress of Industrial Organizations, CIO) focused on "pure unionism" and stressed the right to collective bargaining about all aspects of working conditionsSigns the Interstate Commerce Act (24 Stat 379) which creates and empowers the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC). The goal is to control competition and stabilize rates charged by interstate railroads. Initially, the ICC was part of the Department of Interior, not an "independent commission." Later regulatory authority of the ICC would extend to motor carriers, barges, and airlinesSigns Dawes Act to divide tribal lands into individual allotments with the goal of encouraging assimilation into U.S. society. This Act was met with Indian hostility. The Act has been seen as precipitating the Wounded Knee massacre in 1890Vetoes Dependent Pension Bill, which would have granted a military pension to any person who served 90 days or more. This veto was sustained by the House on 02/24/1887. "Upon a careful consideration of the language of the section of this bill above given it seems to me to be so uncertain and liable to such conflicting constructions and to be subject to such unjust and mischievous application as to alone furnish sufficient ground for disapproving the proposed legislation."Vetoes a bill authorizing the Commissioner of Agriculture to distribute seeds to portions of Texas suffering a devastating drought. "I can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the Constitution. . . A prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should, I think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that though the people support the Government the Government should not support the people."Signs the Hatch Act (24 Stat 440) giving funds to each land-grant college to create agricultural experiment stations and disseminate information relevant to farmingSigns act repealing the Tenure of Office Act of 1867 (24 Stat 500). See Special Message (above) of 03/01/1886 criticizing Senate attempts to constrain presidential choice under the ActBy Executive order regulates the distribution of arms, ordinance stores, quartermaster’s stores and camp equipage to the territories and District of Columbia for the militia of the U.S.By Proclamation suspends tonnage and lighthouse duties on vessels from the Netherlands and the Dutch IndiesBy Executive order closes the executive offices to mourn the death of former president James A. GarfieldBy Executive order, directs the return of Southern battle flags that had been in storage at the War Department. This order generated great controversy and many, including Senators, wrote Cleveland to say the flags should be burned, not returnedIn reaction to the public outcry generated by his order of 06/07/1887, issues another executive order saying he has considered the matter "with more care" and concluded that returning the Confederate flags is "not authorized by existing law." Direction as to the final disposition of the flags should originate in CongressUnder pressure from an armed militia known as "The Honolulu Rifles," linked to wealthy owners--mostly Americans--of sugar plantations, Hawaiian King Kalakaua signs a new constitution transferring power to the legislature and grating suffrage to foreigners by linking voting rights to property ownership. This was known as the Bayonet Constitution. Six years later the same forces will again push for Hawaiian annexation by the USBy Proclamation suspends discriminating tonnage and import duties on Spanish vessels to the United StatesTour of West and SouthThird Annual State of the Union MessageNominates Lucius Q.C. Lamar to the Supreme Court. Lamar was confirmed by the Senate on 1/16/88 (despite an adverse recommendation from the Judiciary Committee); sworn in on 1/18/88. In 1861, Lamar had helped draft the Ordinance of Secession of Mississippi. He had served the Confederacy in several high posts. This fact made this nomination quite controversial. Some saw this as a gesture toward the South to ameliorate sectionalism lingering after the Civil WarBy Proclamation states that the territory claimed by the State of Texas in Greer County, Texas is in fact US Public Land and warns against attempting to purchase such landExecutive order revokes Civil Service rules and promulgates new rules for the Civil Service Commission. The New York Times points out that "not one of the original rules [proposed by the Commission] has been left untouched."By Proclamation suspends tonnage duties on vessels from the Island of GuadalupeNominates Melville W. Fuller to the Supreme Court. He was confirmed by the Senate on 07/20/1888; sworn in 10/08/1888. As Chief Justice he authored the 1895 decision in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan that held income tax to be unconstitutional. He also joined the majority opinion in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896Signs an act authorizing the President to arrange, in 1889, the International Conference of American Nations (25 Stat 155) to encourage "business intercourse" and "to encourage reciprocal commercial relations."In the midterm election, the Republicans maintained control of the Senate, but lost control of the House in one of the largest midterm seat swings ever--loss of 93 seats (out of 332 total) going from 179 seats to only 86Second Annual MessageIn Ocala, FL, a movement of the National Farmers’ Alliance proposes to form a new populist party. Proponents oppose the “Force Bill” under consideration in the Senate (aka the Lodge Bill) supported by Harrison, to promote federal supervision of Congressional electionsMessage to Congress requesting the authority to settlers in Oklahoma aid from the government to survive after flooding from Mississippi RiverBy Proclamation declares that an international exhibition to celebrate Columbus’s arrival in the New World is planned for Chicago. The World’s Columbian Exposition is scheduled to be opened 05/01/1893 and continues until the last Thursday in October 1893A final act in the Federal government's military campaign against the Plains Indians culminates in the Wounded Knee Massacre on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. Between 150 and 300 Lakota were killed by US troopsConflict between the Chilean Congress and the President results in fighting between the Chilean Navy (backing Congress) and the Army (backing the President) extending for many months. [The US Navy published a report on the revolution in 1893.] There were several incidents involving the United States. The "Congressional" forces were victorious by the end of September 1891Hawaiian King Kalakaua dies while on a visit to San Francisco. His sister, Liliuokalani, is proclaimed Queen. Over the next year, strong disagreements arise between the Queen and the legislature concerning the constitution and voting rightsIssues Executive Order directing official mourning following the unexpected death of Treasury Secretary William Windom. Windom died of a heart attack moments after concluding a speech at a banquet in New York City. Windom's selection by Harrison had been politically risky because it involved rejecting the preferences of powerful New York Republican leaders. Windom had emerged as a trusted advisor to HarrisonBy Proclamation United States and Brazil enter into a beneficial trade agreementSigns an act (26 Stat 735) making an apportionment of the House of Representatives, based on the 1890 census, setting the size of the House at 356 effective 1893Signs the Immigration Act of 1891 (26 Stat 1084) excluding many classes of aliens from admission to the US: "All idiots, insane persons, paupers or persons likely to become a public charge, persons suffering from a loathsome or a dangerous contagious disease, . . . "Signs the Judiciary Act of 1891 (26 Stat 826), also known as the Evarts Act. The Evarts Act adds a judge to each judicial circuit and creates courts of appeals for each circuit to consist of three judges. The appeals courts will serve as the immediate appeals court from judgments in the circuit courts prior to appealing to the Supreme Court. Supreme Court justices are removed from doing duty on circuit courtsSigns the Forest Reserve Act (26 Stat 1095). The act states that "the President of the United States may, from time to time, set apart and reserve, in any State or Territory having public land bearing forests . . . and shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishment of such reservations . . . " The power will be enthusiastically embraced by subsequent presidentsSigns the Postal Subsidy Bill (26 Stat 830) allowing the Postmaster General to contract with steamship companies to transport US mail. The payments are restricted to American-built shipsEleven Italian men, referred to in newspapers as members of the mafia, were lynched in New Orleans. The men had previously been acquitted of the murder of the New Orleans Chief of Police. Many citizens firmly believed they were guilty, and that the jury had been corrupted. A mob attacked the prison where the accused were held and shot them to death. Among the men lynched were several Italian citizens, and the Italian minister protested to the US Government.By Proclamation creates a large forest reserve adjacent to Yellowstone ParkSpeaking tour to Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, Nebraska, Iowa, Indiana, Ohio, PennsylvaniaProclaims an agreement for a modus vivendi with Great Britain on the issue of fur-seal fishers in the Bering SeaSpeaking tour to New York and Vermont. During this summer the White House is wired for electricityBy Proclamation land taken from Indian tribes in Iowa is opened for settlementAddress to the Methodist Ecumenical Conference in Washington, D.C. "It is for a Christian sentiment, manifesting itself in a nation, to remove forever such causes of [international] dispute; and then what remains will be the easy subject of adjustment by fair international arbitration."In Valparaiso, Chile, US sailors from the USS Baltimore were attacked, according to the US Navy report, simultaneously and in different locations. Two died as a result. In his Third Annual Message, Harrison states that the Chilean government reply to US inquiries "was couched in an offensive tone." Much related diplomatic correspondence is found at the State DepartmentThird Annual MessageBy Special Message a Board of Geographic Names is created, which is responsible for the uniform naming of geographical landmarksIn Special Message to Congress proposes funds be provided to charter a ship to take food supplies to offset a famine in Russia. This is immediately followed by passage of a Joint Resolution in the Senate. The resolution was not approved in the House where opponent argued that the government had not assisted US citizens in distress and that the cost of providing the aid to Russia would prove to be as great as the aid itselfMessage to Congress about tensions escalating with Chile over the killing of American soldiers in Valparaiso in October of 1891. Harrison demands an official apology from their government or threatens to sever diplomatic relations and urges Congress to take appropriate actionMessage to Congress, Chile apologizes for incident involving killing of an American soldierIn a Message to Congress, requests a special appropriation to fund public inspectors of mines in the Territories. "Economies which involve a sacrifice of human life are intolerable."By Special Message, transmits to the Senate an agreement with Great Britain concerning arbitration of disputes over jurisdiction in the Bering SeaRatifies a Convention with Great Britain (27 Stat 947) agreeing to submit to an arbitration tribunal disputes with the U.S. concerning jurisdictional rights in the Behring Sea and also concerning the preservation of fur-seals. Agreement on the convention had been reached on 02/29/1892 and it was proclaimed on 05/09/1892. This negotiation had been mentioned in the Second Annual MessageMessage to Senate requests Congress consider the free coinage of silver at the upcoming International Silver ConferenceSigns the Chinese Exclusion Act, also known as the Geary Act, (27 Stat 25) continuing in force for another 10 years all laws prohibiting the entry to the US of Chinese persons and persons of Chinese descent. Anyone convicted under the act is subject to punishment of one year at hard labor followed by expulsion. The bill had passed in the Senate by a vote of 30-15 (67%) and the House by a vote of 186-27 (with 115 not voting)Letter to the Virginia State Baptist Convention condemns lynchings in the Southern States. "Lynchings are a reproach to any community; they impeach the adequacy of our institutions for the punishment of crime; they brutalize the participants and shame our Christian civilization." But, he adds, under the laws and the Constitution “I am, in a large measure, without the power to interfere . . . "Secretary of State James Blaine resigns to pursue the Republican nomination against HarrisonRepublican National Convention in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Harrison renominated with Whitelaw Reid as Vice President. Harrison won on the first ballot. It appears that Harrison had never made a public pronouncement of his desire for reelection, but he had not discouraged his allies who worked diligently toward that endMessage to Congress on reciprocal trade with Canada. Points out that Canada discriminates against American vessels in applying tolls for passage through Canadian canals. Urges Congressional action to "secure the rights of our citizens."Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Illinois. Cleveland nominated for President for a third time with Adlai Stevenson as his Vice-PresidentA violent confrontation, known as the Homestead Steel Strike, breaks out in Homestead, Pennsylvania. Steelworkers clash with Pinkerton guards, armed with Winchester rifles, employed by the Carnegie Company. Eleven strikers and 9 Pinkertons are killed in the fighting. On 07/10/1892 the Pennsylvania National Guard mobilizes to bring order. The use of private armed guards to confront workers was very controversial.In a violent confrontation at Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, mines, 12 nonunion miners were killed by union miners. The Idaho Governor called out the militia to restore order and requested troops from the President. Martial law is imposed in IdahoBy Proclamation commands those involved in the "Idaho insurrection" to disperse. There had been conflict between union and non-union workers in the silver mines resulting in the death of at least twelve nonunion workers. These events are known as the Coeur d’Alene riotsBy Proclamation, orders persons in Wyoming engaged in unlawful and disorderly conduct to retireSigns the "Eight Hour Act" (27 Stat 340) restricting employees of the Federal Government, the District of Columbia, and Federal Government contractors to eight-hour days. Despite this action, Harrison is attacked by Democrats as being "anti-labor."Vetoes An Act to amend the Act of Congress approved March 3,1887, entitled "An act to provide for the bringing of suits against the Government of the United States." This was bringing suits against the Government for land patents, but Harrison objects that it is too hard to determine the effects that this act will have on public lands. This bill is too radical and indefinite for approval. The veto is unchallengedBegins a period of intense concentration on the threat of a cholera outbreakIn response to the expectation that people soon to be arriving on ships from Europe have been exposed to cholera, the Treasury directs that ships arriving at US ports be held in quarantine for at least 20 days.Harrison letter accepting the Republican Presidential nominationHarrison cancels planned campaigning to attend to his wife, Caroline, who has been in declining health since Spring. They return to the White House on 09/21/1892 and she dies on 10/25/1892--two weeks prior to the electionElection Day. Harrison loses bid for a second term to former President Cleveland. Cleveland wins 62% of the electoral vote and a plurality--46%--of the popular vote. Populist Party candidate James B. Weaver wins 5% of the electoral vote and 8.5% of the popular vote, winning electoral votes in Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Nevada, North Dakota, and OregonFourth Annual MessageBy Proclamation designates Afognak Island, Alaska as a "public reservation" including offshore "fish-culture stations." Some have identified this as, effectively, the first federal wildlife refugeBy Proclamation, pardons Mormons liable to penalties under Federal statute of March 22, 1882, for practicing polygamy or plural marriage, or engaging in unlawful cohabitationHawaiian Queen Liliuokalani proposes a new constitution for Hawaii but is rebuffed by her ministers. She dissolves the legislature. Social disorder ensues with some violence. On the next day, an opposition "provisional government" is formed, headed by Sanford DoleAt the direction of US Minister to Hawaii, John L. Stevens, 180 marines from the USS Boston came to Honolulu "for the protection of the lives and property of American citizens." They were widely viewed as in support of the provisional governmentHawaiian Queen Liliuokalani is deposed and withdraws the proposed constitution. Sanford B. Dole heads the provisional government until President Cleveland withdraws the proposed annexation treaty in 1894. Documentary details of this history (including two prior timeline entries) are found in the 1894 Blount ReportExecutive Order regarding the death of former President Rutherford B. HayesElectoral votes tabulated in Congress. Cleveland's victory is officialMessage to Senate recommending ratification of a treaty annexing Hawaii agreed to on 02/14/1893. In the message recounts his understanding of the history of the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani. This treaty will be withdrawn by President Cleveland in December 1893By Special Message, transmits to Congress the report of the American delegates to the International Monetary ConferenceVetoes "An act to prescribe the number of district attorneys and marshals in the judicial districts of the State of Alabama" which seems not to provide for the current incumbents in the jobs. The veto is overridden on March 3, 1893 (27 Stat 745)--this is the only Harrison veto that was overriddenCleveland is inauguratedSpecial Message withdrawing from Hawaiian Annexation treaty for the purpose of reexamination of the terms and conditions of formation of the new government. This treaty had been approved near the end of President Harrison's termTreasury Secretary John G. Carlisle creates a backlash when he is prominently quoted saying that "greenback" Treasury notes will be redeemed in gold coin "for so long as it [the Treasury] has gold lawfully available for that purpose." He is credited with causing stocks to fall and interest rates to riseIn response to the outcry raised by Carlisle, Cleveland issues a statement asserting the determination of the President and the Cabinet "to maintain the public credit, to keep the public faith, and to preserve the parity between gold and silver."Opens World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, IL. Cleveland gives the opening day addressPanic of 1893 begins after the National Cordage Company and Philadelphia and Reading Railroads go bankrupt. The economic crisis is a major blow to the new Democratic Administration. The bankruptcies and fears about gold lead to bank runsA malignant tumor is discovered on the roof of President Cleveland’s mouth. A decision is made to keep the President's condition secret out of concern that knowledge might exacerbate the financial crisisProclamation calling a special session of Congress to handle the economic crisis through tariff reform and the repeal of the silver-purchase lawCleveland undergoes a secret operation aboard the yacht Oneida, in the East River of New York to remove his tumor and part of his jaw. Rumors began to spread about the operation in August of 1893. The operation was confirmed publicly only in 1917. It has been reported that subsequently Cleveland "lost much of his old energy, was often irritable and suffered some loss of hearing."Special Session Message to Congress amid debates about the gold standard and the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890. Cleveland informs Democratic Senators that he will ignore their patronage requests if they oppose his call for repealDaughter Esther is born at the White House--the first and only child born in the White HouseFourth Oklahoma "Land Rush" by settlers to acquire 7 million acres of the "Cherokee Strip" created in 1836 for the use of the Cherokee tribe. The US purchased the land from the tribe for $7 millionSigns an act formally repealing the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 (28 Stat 4). The purpose of this Act is to stop the drain on U.S. gold reserves. This is a notable success for the Cleveland administration--the bill passed despite an opposition filibuster in the form Cleveland demanded. This is a forceful repudiation of traditional party leadershipColorado gives voting rights to women by popular referendumFirst Annual State of the Union Message of Cleveland’s second termSpecial Message further discussing US relations with HawaiiThe United States offers $50 million of treasury bonds for sale (at 5%) with the aim of increasing gold reserves, which is of great concern to the Cleveland administration. The sale is ultimately unsuccessfulOrganized by Ohio businessman Jacob Coxey, a march of thousands to Washington D.C. begins in Massillon, Ohio. Marchers call on the federal government to take action to alleviate the economic depression by providing the unemployed with worthwhile jobs. Coxey proposed a public works program ("Good Roads Bill"). On reaching Washington, "Coxey's Army" was quickly dispersed by policeOrganized by Ohio businessman Jacob Coxey, a march of thousands to Washington D.C. begins in Massillon, Ohio. Marchers call on the federal government to take action to alleviate the economic depression by providing the unemployed with worthwhile jobs. Coxey proposed a public works program ("Good Roads Bill"). On reaching Washington, "Coxey's Army" was quickly dispersed by policeThe American Railway Union (ARU) begins a strike against the Pullman Company that eventually included any handling of Pullman cars by ARU workersSigns an act to make Labor Day a national holiday (28 Stat 96). This is a conciliatory gesture towards the American labor movement amid railway strikesThe provisional government of Hawai’i declares the Republic of Hawai’i, which is formally recognized by the United States on 08/08/1894Proclamation sending federal troops to Chicago to break the Pullman railway strikes, a national railroad strike and boycott that severely disrupted rail traffic in the Midwest. The strike had disrupted US mail delivery--a federal function--which was the grounds for sending troops. This marks the first time an injunction was used to break a strike. American Railway Union leader Eugene Debs was arrested for ignoring the injunctionCongress passes the Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act (28 Stat 509), which raises income taxes to 2% on all income over $4000 and on all corporate income above operating expenses. Cleveland withholds his signature but does not veto. That is a rare presidential course of actionCongress passes the Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act (28 Stat 509), which raises income taxes to 2% on all income over $4000 and on all corporate income above operating expenses. Cleveland withholds his signature but does not veto. That is a rare presidential course of actionProclamation granting amnesty and pardon for members of the Church of the Latter-Day Saints for polygamy, bigamy, adultery, and unlawful cohabitationIn midterm elections, Cleveland's Democratic Party suffers a historic defeat. In the House they go from holding 218 seats to only 93 (i.e., from 61% majority to 26% minority). In the Senate, Democrats lose the majority, going from 44 to 40 seats (out of a total of 90 seats; 4 Populists, 2 Silvers). Cleveland recommends repeal of sugar differential and endorsement of free coal and free iron billsA second bond sale is decided by Cleveland to try to stabilize gold reserves, instead of waiting for Congress to act. The purpose of this sale was to restore the gold reserve and maintain good deficiencies until the new tariff can provide revenue. Like the first sale, this one is unsuccessfulSecond Annual State of the Union Message. Questions surrounding the currency of the nation remain, legislation is proposed. With respect to the tariff, Cleveland recommends repeal of differentials in favor of refined sugar and removing tariffs on coal ironMessage to Congress. Asks the legislative branch to act so that confidence can be restored in the financial soundness of the United States. A plan was proposed during the annual message that Congress had failed to approve, prompting this messageSpecial Message to Congress. Concerns over the U.S. financial condition prompts a third Treasury bond sale to try to restore the U.S. gold reserves and validate the credit of the government. In this sale, Cleveland is forced to turn to J.P. Morgan, who buys bonds in exchange for $62 million of European gold. This saved the gold reserves, but disappointed opponents of the gold standardProclamation prohibiting the hunting of fur-bearing animals in the territory of Alaska. This continues a trend established during Harrison’s presidencyThe New York Times reports on growing Cuban insurrection against Spain. The uprising affects US investments and is over time encouraged by Cubans expatriates in the U.S.In Pollock v. Farmers' Loan and Trust Co., by a 5-4 vote, the U.S. Supreme Court nullifies the income tax law set forth in the Wilson-Gorman Tariff ActThe Supreme Court Rules, 9-0, in In re Debs that the federal government--i.e., the president--could legally intervene to protect interstate commerce and the US mail, and that the court did have the authority to issue an injunction preventing federal functions. Debs was guilty of defying the injunction. The court wrote, "The strong arm of the national government may be put forth to brush away all obstructions to the freedom of interstate commerce or the transportation of the mails."Proclamation declares sympathy for Cuban rebels after they revolt against Spanish rule but announces official US neutrality in the matterDaughter Marion is born at Gray Gables, Buzzards Bay, MAThird Annual State of the Union MessageBy Special Message, further discusses Venezuelan-British dispute. The boundary of British Guiana [sic] is the main source of tension between the two countries. The United States discusses becoming an arbitrator between the two countriesBy Proclamation, admits Utah to the Union as the 45th state. The act that allowed Utah to form a constitution and State government was passed by Congress on 07/16/1894A fourth sale of treasury bonds in support of buying gold is announced and ultimately expands the federal debt to $262 millionVetoes an act granting a pension to Frances E. Hoover. The House overrode the veto on 05/21/1896 and the Senate overrode the veto on 06/10/1896. Cleveland argued that Hoover’s condition was not related to his service in the militaryVetoes an act granting a pension to Caroline D. Mowatt. The House overrode the veto on 02/09/1897 and the Senate overrode the veto on 03/03/1897. Mowatt, the widow of a Civil War soldier, had remarried, which terminated her pension rightsIn Plessy v. Ferguson, by a 7-1 vote, the Supreme Court upholds the rights of state governments to impose racial segregation. This becomes known as “separate but equal.” The dissent, by Justice Harlan argued that all citizens should have equal access to civil rightsVetoes an act granting a pension to Rachel Patton. This case involved the pension rights of a civil war widow. Patton had remarried—thereby losing her right to a pension—and then divorced the second husband. The bill was to restore her pension rights, which Cleveland pointed out were clearly forfeited under the law. The House overrode the veto on 02/09/1897 and the Senate overrode the veto on 03/03/1897Vetoes an act making appropriations for the construction, repair, and preservation of certain public works on rivers and harbors, and for other purposes. The House overrode the veto on 06/02/1896 and the Senate overrode the veto on 06/03/1896On the third day of the Convention, Ohio Governor William McKinley is nominated, on the first ballot, for President at the Republican National Convention meeting in St. LouisMcKinley remarks after official notification of his nominationA former Representative, newspaper editor William Jennings Bryan is nominated for President at the Democratic National Convention. His speech at the convention, prior to the nomination, is known as “Cross of Gold”. It is one of the most famous speeches in American political history. Bryan was 36 years old at the time of the nomination.Bryan remarks after official notification of his nominationMcKinley's Letter formally accepting the Republican NominationBryan's Letter formally accepting the Democratic nominationElection Day. Republican William McKinley is elected President defeating Democrat William Jennings Bryan. McKinley wins the 61% of the electoral vote and 51.1% of the popular vote. Minor party candidates received 3.1% of the popular voteProclamation excluding lands owned by the Greek Oriental Church in Sitka, Alaska from withdrawal for public purposesFourth Annual State of the Union MessageSpecial Message regarding treaty of arbitration between United States and Great Britain. This concerns a boundary dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain that started in December 1895Vetoes an act to constitute a new division of the eastern judicial district of Texas, and to provide for the holding of terms of court at Beaumont, Texas, and for the appointment of a clerk for said court. The House overrode the veto on 01/22/1897 and the Senate overrode the veto on 02/08/1897Signs Act (29 Stat 526) authorizing "any person authorized to enter lands" to make claims ("obtain patent") to lands containing petroleum. This law will later be important in a Supreme Court decision during Taft's administration (U.S. v Midwest Oil) about the President's authority to issue executive orders without precise statutory authorityProclaimed the creation of 13 new national forest reserves in eight western states totalling 21 million acres. This was nearly twice the total acreage in existing forest reserves. Subsequently these were referred to as the "Washington's Birthday Reserves." Cleveland acted pursuant to a law passed on March 3, 1891By Proclamation convenes an extra session of the United States SenateVeto of Immigration Bill. Notes that the bill proposed an educational test excluding persons over 16 who can not read and write the English language or some other language. He also objects to criminalizing temporary immigration for the purpose of employment. The veto was overridden in the House on 03/03/1897 but was not acted upon in the SenatePocket vetoes HR 10290, an appropriations bill passed on March 2, 1897 "for sundry civil expenses of the Government." The bill included a Senate amendment offered by Wyoming Senator Clarence Clark to restore the reserves created on 02/22/1897 "to the public domain subject to settlement, occupancy and entry." The veto effectively left the government with a "deficiency" that would need to be addressed immediately in the next Congress and preserved presidential power to create reservesWilliam McKinley is inauguratedCalls Special session of Congress for the revision of the tariff lawsAppoints then President of the New York City Police Board Theodore Roosevelt as the Assistant Secretary of the NavyIn Message to Congress, recommends the appropriation of $50,000 for Americans residing in Cuba who need financial and medical assistanceSigns an Appropriations Act (30 Stat 11) including language affirming presidential power to create forest reserves, and continuing existing reserves. The law stipulates that land may not be reserved that is more valuable for its minerals than its timber. Reserves are to protect forests and watersheds and to "furnish a continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of the United States."Begins Atlantic coast tour in Dispatch Boat DolphinSummer Vacation and speaking tour. Includes visits to Plattsburgh, NY, Vermont, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania. Notable for inviting the press to accompany him, and actually visiting the press car on the trainThe steamship Excelsior arrives in San Francisco from Alaska carrying at least 30 passengers with gold valued at around $500,000. Their reports of perilous conditions in Dawson City and swarms of miners already in the Klondike do not deter more treasure-seekers from undertaking the journeySigns the Dingley Tariff Act (30 Stat 151), raising customs duties by an average of 49 percent over the levels of the 1890 McKinley TariffTravels to Ohio for the Ohio elections for Governor and state legislative elections. This election would determine the status of Mark Hanna, who had been appointed to the Senate (03/05/1897) on resignation of Senator John Sherman to become Secretary of StateFirst annual message to CongressThe U.S.S. Maine enters Havana Harbor following US notification of the Spanish government of a "friendly visit."New York Journal publishes a letter insulting President McKinley, written by Spanish minister to the United States Se–or Don Enrique Dupuy de LômeU.S. battleship U.S.S. Maine blown up, two officers and 264 crew were killed either in the explosion or when the ship sank. Within days US media emphasized the question of the cause of the explosion--onboard accident or external attackNaval Court of Inquiry is formed to investigate the causes of the explosion of the USS MaineSigns unanimously approved appropriation of $50 M for the National defense (30 Stat 274) for use at the discretion of President McKinleyReceives report of U.S. Naval Court of Inquiry addressing the explosion of the USS Maine. The conclusion states that "the ship was destroyed by the explosion of a submarine mine, which caused the partial explosion of two or more of her forward magazines."Contrary to the U.S. Navy, the Spanish Navy reports that an on-board explosion caused the sinking of the U.S.S. MaineForwards the Naval Court of Inquiry Report to CongressUS Minister to Spain transmits to the Spanish Government the US desire for "immediate peace in Cuba" and an immediate armistice during which negotiations would proceed between the insurgents and Spain. The US foreswears interest in possessing CubaSpain declines to declare a unilateral suspension of hostilities sought by the United States. This is viewed as implying a continuation of active warfareIn a Message to Congress, requests a declaration of war with SpainSpecial Message to the Senate reports the number of officers, sailors, and marines saved, lost, and buried from the U.S.S. Maine explosionSigns Joint Resolution known as the "Teller Amendment"" (30 Stat 738) recognizing independence of Cuba from Spain and demanding that Spain "relinquish its authority and government in the Island of Cuba and withdraw its land and naval forces . . ." Further the Resolution urges the President to use the US military "as may be necessary" to put the resolution to effect. The United States disclaimed "any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said Island."Spain responded to the demands of the "Teller Amendment" by breaking diplomatic relations with the US. The US Ambassador in Spain received instructions that in the case of War between Spain and the US, any American citizens in Spain should "receive assistance."In order to put into effect the Teller Amendment of 04/20/1898, by Proclamation declares a blockade of Cuba between the ports of Cardenas and Bahia Honda, as well as the southern port of CienfuegosSigns "An Act to provide for temporarily increasing the military establishment of the United States in time of war" to create a volunteer ArmyBy Proclamation calls forth 125,000 volunteers to serve in the army pursuant to the Act of 04/22/1898Following the President's proclamation, Spain formally declares war on U.S.Directs Commodore George Dewey to lead the naval Asiatic Squadron from port of Hong Kong to the Philippine Islands for the purpose of military engagement with the Spanish fleetSigns the Declaration of War on SpainCommodore George Dewey leads United States to early victory over the Spanish navy in the Battle of Manila Bay: Philippines and Spanish Pacific fleet fall. Seven Spanish vessels sink with zero American lossesAssistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt resigns from his administrative position and joins 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry RegimentIn a Special Message, notifies Congress that on 04/24/1898 he had directed Commodore Dewey to engage the Spanish FleetIssues executive orders to Secretary of War Russell A. Alger, Secretary of Treasury Lyman J. Gage, and Secretary of the Navy John D. Long outlining military occupation over the Philippine archipelago. Guidelines include the protection of churches and places of worship, places of education, national monuments, private property (with exception for eminent domain), and continuation of taxation on inhabitants from the former government.By Proclamation, calls forth 75,000 additional volunteers to serve in the war with SpainSigns the Erdman Arbitration Act (30 Stat 424), authorizing government mediation in labor disputes involving carriers in interstate commerceExtended speaking tour includes opening The Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition in Omaha, NebraskaSigns "An Act To remove the disability imposed by section three of the Fourteenth Amendment. . . " (30 Stat 432). This removed, without limitation as to offices held, the prohibition on holding office by those participating in an insurrection who had previously pledged an oath of allegiance to the Constitution. This extended the amnesty earlier enacted in 1872600 U.S. Marines land at Guantanamo Bay as part of a plan to establish a naval baseSigns the War Revenue Act (30 Stat 448), creating new taxes to raise revenue for the Spanish-American WarThe New York Times reports that the War Department is preparing to send 20,000 troops to invade Puerto RicoReceived delegation of General Federation of Women's Clubs en route to their national convention in Denver. At the meeting a resolution passed critical of child labor--an interest advocated by club member Jane AddamsSpanish Guam surrenders to the U.S. after the U.S.S. Charleston bombarded garrisons. Commanders from Spain stationed in Guam were unaware of the ongoing war with the U.S.By proclamation extends a U.S. Navy blockade to both the southern coast of Cuba from Cape Frances Cape Cruz and port San Juan in Puerto RicoU.S. defeats Spanish forces in Cuba at the Battle of San Juan Hill (or Battle of San Juan Heights), accelerating the conclusion of the warAdmiral William Sampson and the United States Navy defeat the Spanish Atlantic fleet off the harbor of Santiago de Cuba, opening the city to land invasionSigns Hawai'i Annexation Bill (30 Stat 750), transferring the sovereignty of the Republic of Hawai'i to the United StatesIssues executive order to Secretary of War Russell A. Alger to issue guidelines for the military occupation of CubaSpain surrenders Santiago de Cuba to General William Shafter and the U.S. militaryThe New York Times reports that army troops are expected to reach Puerto Rico todayThe U.S. invades Spanish Puerto RicoThe New York Times reports "Our flag raised in Puerto Rico."Proclaims an armistice signing with Spain, suspending ongoing military hostilities. Spain agrees to cede Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States and affirms Cuban independence. The future of Philippines ownership is left open to future peace deliberationsNewspapers report that Secretary of War Russell A. Alger has formally requested President McKinley to order an investigation into charges that the Department of War mismanaged volunteer army camps in Chickamauga (GA), Falls Church (VA), Jacksonville (FL), and Tampa (FL) during the war with SpainAddresses members of the Dodge Commission investigating the War Department's practices (see entry of 09/08/1898). Mismanagement of typhoid epidemics, spoiled rations, and logistical and transportation-related disorganization in volunteer army camps during war with Spain is to be scrutinizedDelivers remarks at the Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition in Omaha, Nebraska. The speech promotes a theme of unity and progress: technological innovation, development of the western continental United States, the acquisition of foreign territory, and the unification of Northern and Southern soldiers fighting toward a common war goal against SpainU.S. begins military occupation of Puerto RicoPhoenix SC Election Riot, involved mob attacks that began with confrontation with White Republican poll watchers. In subsequent days the Whites were driven out of town and a number of Blacks killedA violent attack by a white mob on the offices of a Black-owned newspaper in Wilmington, NC was followed by the forced ouster of the city government. This followed a mass meeting on November 9 "to assert the supremacy of the white man" (New York Times, 11/10/1898, p 4). This "riot" (The Wilmington Massacre) resulted in many deaths--estimated between 60 and 260McKinley dies in Buffalo, New York after developing multi-organ gangreneTheodore Roosevelt Takes Office following the death of William McKinley; youngest person to take office as presidentPresident Roosevelt invites Booker T. Washington to dine at the White House. Southerners are upset by what is said to be “an intended insult to the South. . . and as a threat of social equality. . . “ (Washington Times, 10/19/1901) An initial report was that this dinner signalled that the President would “make somewhat more vigorous mention in his message to Congress of lynch and mob law than have his predecessors.”Hay-Pauncefote Treaty signed with Great Britain, giving the US the right to create and control an Isthmian canal. Abrogated Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850First State of the Union Message to Congress; calls for regulation of trusts, conservation, enlarged navy, extension of civil serviceHay-Pauncefote Treaty is ratified by the SenateSigns Permanent Census Bureau ActSigns Philippine Tariff Act (32 Stat 54), confirming actions of the Philippine CommissionSigns extension of the Chinese Exclusion Act (32 Stat 176) (“An Act to prohibit the coming into and to regulate the residence within the United States, its Territories, and all territory under its jurisdiction, and the District of Columbia, of Chinese and persons of Chinese descent”)Pennsylvania Coal Miners Strike organized by the United Mine Workers of AmericaSigns legislation creating Crater Lake National Park in OregonBy proclamation creates the Yellowstone Forest Reserve and the Teton Forest ReserveOrders Investigation of Coal StrikeSigns the Newlands Reclamation Act (32 Stat 388); revenues from public land sales in western states may be used to fund water storage and irrigation projectsSigns the Isthmian Canal Act (32 Stat 481), providing funds for acquiring the assets of the New Panama Canal Company, of France, and land from Columbia, constructing a canal in PanamaSigns the Philippine Government ActIn response to the Anthracite Coal Strike, Roosevelt convenes a conference in Washington DC while the White House was undergoing renovation. Roosevelt stated that he had no authority to intervene in the strike, but regarded the situation as intolerable. This is the first time a president has intervened in an industrial dispute. Roosevelt later released a transcript of the meeting to the press, to the detriment of the mine ownersSecond Annual State of the Union MessageSigns Act (32 Stat 825) increasing salaries of Supreme Court Justices and other federal judgesSigns the Act (32 Stat 825) establishing the Department of Commerce and Labor. This agency received offices from the Treasury (Light Houses; Steamboat Inspection Service; Bureau of Navigation; National Bureau of Standards; Coast and Geodetic Survey; Commissioner-General of Immigration; Bureau of Statistics. From the Department of the Interior: The Census Office; the Fish Commission. From State Department: Bureau of Foreign Commerce. New Bureau: Bureau of ManufacturesSigns the Elkins Anti-Rebate Act (32 Stat 847) (An Act to further regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the States), making it illegal for persons or corporations to “offer, grant, or give or to solicit, accept or receive any rebate. . . in respect of the transportation of any property in interstate or foreign commerce.”Champion v. Ames (“The Lottery Case”) decision of the Supreme Court; transport of lottery tickets is “commerce” and federal "regulation" of interstate commerce includes the power to prohibit commerceProclaims Pelican Island, Florida as the first Federal Bird Reservation or refuge. Roosevelt cites as authority an 1891 act permitting the President to “set apart and reserve” public lands wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or not.” Between 1902 and the end of his presidency, Roosevelt established over 100 reserves.”Extended Western Tour visits and speaks on at least 135 occasions in Pennsylvania, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, UtahOrders Warships to Panama to Maintain Free and Uninterrupted Transit Across IsthmusPanama declares independence from ColombiaThe United States Recognizes the Republic of PanamaTreaty signed with Republic of Panama for the construction of a ship canalThird Annual State of the Union MessageSpecial Message outlines activities relating to construction of an isthmian canalIn Gonzales v. Williams, the Supreme Court rules that Puerto Rico residents are not “alien immigrants” with respect to US immigration law (but are also not US citizens)Russo-Japanese War beginsProclamation of U.S. neutrality in Russo-Japanese WarIn Northern Securities Co. v. United States, the Supreme Court Orders the Dissolution of the Northern Securities Company (a holding company) is an illegal combination in accordance with the Sherman Anti-Trust ActSigns Naval Construction Act (32 Stat 350) provides for increasing the Navy by constructing many new shipsRepublicans Nominate Theodore Roosevelt by acclimation for President, Charles Fairbanks as Vice PresidentElection Day, Roosevelt wins defeating Democrat Alton B. ParkerFourth Annual State of the Union MessagePresidential electors cast ballotsTemporary agreement with the Dominican Republic to undertake the “Roosevelt Corollary”Signs Act (33 Stat 628) transferring control of forest reserves (Bureau of Forestry) to the Department of Agriculture; Gifford Pinchot continues as chief. The Bureau becomes “The Forest Service” as of July 1, 1905Signs Joint Resolution authorizing the Secretary of War to return to respective states "certain Union and Confederate battle flags." (33 Stat 1284) The New York Times had reported that officers of the veterans association, Grand Army of the Republic, opposed this actionSecond Inaugural AddressAttends the wedding of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt in New York CitySpeaking tour including the states of Kentucky, Texas, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Oklahoma, Colorado, Nebraska, Illinois, and IowaLochner v. New York. Supreme Court holds that state limitations on working hours are unconstitutional; the due process clause of the 14th Amendment protects the individual right to freedom of contractAbout this time, identical diplomatic messages invited Japanese and Russians to engage in peace talksIndustrial Workers of the World Union established in ChicagoMeeting of Black intellectuals at Niagara Falls demands racial equality; beginning of the “Niagara Movement,” predecessor of National Association for the Advancement of Colored PeopleCalls for a report from the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service on yellow fever outbreak in New OrleansRusso-Japanese Peace talks begin at Oyster Bay, N.Y., peace talks begin at Portsmouth NH 08/09/1905Russia and Japan sign the Portsmouth Treaty ending the Russo-Japanese warSpeaking tour including the states of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, LouisianaFifth State of the Union Message to CongressDaughter Alice Lee Roosevelt is married; major news event“The Man with the Muckrake” SpeechSan Francisco Earthquake. A massive early-morning quake is followed by fire and the loss of hundreds of livesSigns Act Amending the General Allotment Act of 1887 (34 Stat 182) removes all restrictions as to sale, incumbrance or taxation of lands granted in ownership to Indians under the General Allotment actSigns the National Monuments Act (“An Act for the preservation of American antiquities" (34 Stat 225)). The President is authorized by public proclamation, to create national monuments, limited to the “smallest area compatible with the proper care and management of the object to be protected.”Signs Act (34 Stat 267) enabling Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona to form constitutions and be admitted into the UnionSigns the Hepburn Act (34 Stat 584), enhancing the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate railroad shipping rates and enforce regulations. In particular, the act was intended to reduce the bargaining power of large shippers. The Commission was empowered to set rates that it determined were “just and reasonable” (rather than any kind of market-set prices). The ICC was increased in size and members’ salaries increased. Passage of the bill depended on popular outrage toward the railroadsSigns the the Pure Food and Drug Act (34 Stat 768) prohibiting the manufacturing and sale of poisonous foods, drugs, or medicinesBrownsville Incident involving accusations of murder against African-American “Buffalo Soldiers” stationed at Fort Brown, TX. On 11/05/1906, Roosevelt ordered 167 soldiers of the 25th U.S. Regiment dishonorably discharged. This action was quite controversial at the time. On September 24, 1972, the Secretary of the Army Robert Froehlke reversed that order, changing the discharges to HonorableAsserts rights under existing treaty to intervene in CubaAtlanta GA race riot. “Roosevelt remained silent on the massacre.”The New York Times (10/26/1906, p 9) reports that the Japanese Ambassador lodged a complaint about discrimination against Japanese children by the San Francisco School District. He argues that this discrimination is contrary to the terms of a 1894 treaty. This provokes a conflict resolved in 1907Visits Panama to inspect the building of the Panama CanalSixth Annual Message to CongressAwarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in ending the Russo-Japanese War. Roossevelt did not attend the ceremony in person but a telegraphed statement was read by the American Envoy to NorwayOscar Straus of New York City Confirmed as Secretary of Department of Commerce and Labor; first Jewish member of any President’s cabinetMessage to Congress after return from Canal Zone in PanamaMessage to Congress on discharge of soldiers in the “Brownsville Incident.”Signs Act (34 Stat 864) Prohibiting “money contributions” to Federal political candidates by CorporationsSigns the Immigration Act of 1907Issues 14 proclamations establishing forest reserves in certain Western statesSigns the Department of Agriculture appropriations bill (34 Stat 1271) (which included the Forest Service) that included this language: “hereafter no forest reserve shall be created, nor shall any additions be made to one heretofore created within the limits of the States of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Colorado, or Wyoming, except by Act of Congress.” That language motivated the block of forest reserve proclamations on 03/02The Panic of 1907 destabilizes the American financial system; stock market crashesAttempts to dissipate rumors of a financial crashOklahoma becomes a stateSeventh Annual Message to CongressUS battle fleet of 16 battleships (“Great White Fleet”) begins an extended trip in Pacific Ocean and on around the globeGrand Canyon declared National MonumentGovernors’ Conference on the Conservation of Natural Resources meets at the White House. Organized substantially by Gifford PinchotSigns child labor law for the District of Columbia (35 Stat 420); forbids employment to children under age 14Appoints National Conservation Commission; includes members of Congress as well as Executive Branch officialsWilliam Howard Taft nominated for President at Republican ConventionAppoints Commission on Country LifeSpringfield, IL race riot begins and continues for two days. There is widespread violence and two African-Americans are lynched. Order was restored by the Illinois National Guard. The reaction against these events drives the eventual formation of the NAACP. The President seems to have made no public comment on the incidentFord introduces the Model T automobileWilliam Howard Taft is elected PresidentEighth State of the Union Message to CongressIn Special Message, asks for Congressional investigation of claims by a New York newspaper, The World, (edited by Joseph Pulitzer) that there was corruption involved in acquiring French rights to the Panama CanalSubmits, as Special Message to Congress, the Report of the National Conservation CommissionSubmits as Special Message to Congress the report of the Commission on Country LifeAfrican-American leaders launch the National Association for the Advancement of Colored PeoplePulitzer indicted for criminal libelReviews “Great White Fleet” upon its return to Hampton Roads, VASigns Appropriations Act that includes an increase in the salary of the President from $50,000 to $75,000William Howard Taft Inaugural AddressThe Senate confirms all of Taft's cabinet nominations. These included Richard Ballinger as Secretary of the Interior. Ballinger's selection was a disappointment to conservationists who had hoped for the reappointment of Roosevelt's Interior Secretary, James R. Garfield. Garfield was closely linked to Gifford Pinchot, chief of the Forestry Service in the Department of the Interior and a friend of Theodore Roosevelt. Ballinger becomes the focus of controversyThe New York Times (p 1, 11/12/1898) reports that a survivor of the Phoenix, SC race riot (R. R. Tolbert, Collector of Customs at the Port of Charleston) had "an extended interview with President McKinley." He subsequently met with Attorney General Griggs. These instances of racial violence were not addressed personally by McKinleySecond annual message to CongressThe U.S. and Spain sign the Treaty of Paris, (30 Stat 1754) ending the Spanish-American War. Spain relinquishes its control over Cuba and formally cedes ownership of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States, broadening the United States' international obligationsIssues executive orderdeclaring permanent United States military governance over the entire Philippine archipelago, transitioning from the occupying military government in Manila. The Philippine Islands are "under the free flag of the United States." "[T]he mission of the United States is one of benevolent assimilation, substituting the mild sway of justice and right for arbitrary rule."Issues executive order to evacuate the American fleet in HavanaSpanish forces leave Cuba and The United States takes official controlBy executive order appoints a five-member Commission to "ascertain what amelioration in the condition of the inhabitants [of the Philippines] and what improvements in public order may be practicable." Government of the Islands remains under military control "until Congress shall determine otherwise."In reaction against the United States, a Philippine Republic is proclaimed in in the city of Malolos, under the leadership of revolutionary Emilio Aguinaldo (who had previously led Philippine resistance to Spain)Start of the Battle of Manila, between U.S. military and troops of the recently proclaimed Philippine RepublicThe Treaty of Paris is (narrowly) ratified by the Senate and signed by the PresidentDodge Committee Report is submitted to President McKinley (see entry of 09/28/1898)By Special Message, requests Congress to appropriate funds for publicly or privately owned communication cable running from the continental United States, through Hawai'i and Guam, to the PhilippinesThe Treaty of Paris proclaimedIssues executive order exempting thousands from civil service examinations and greater oversight over partisan motivated removals, deviating from President Cleveland's strong civil service reform platformSecretary of State John M. Hay releases "Open Door Policy" notes to Britain, France, Japan, and Russia to endorse international trade and open economic markets with ChinaAfter the Dodge Commission's investigation into the mismanagement of the Spanish-American War (see above), the President accepts the Resignation of Secretary of War Russell A. Alger, to be effective 08/01/1899Vice President Garret Augustus Hobart passes away from heart complicationsThird annual message to CongressIn Washington DC, Britain and the United States sign the first Hay-Pauncefote Treaty revising the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, approving of a jointly occupied neutral isthmian canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. The canal was a major interest of President McKinley. The treaty was referred to the Senate immediately after signing. Disagreement over whether the canal could be fortified delayed ratification until the end of 1900Meets with representatives of the Women's Christian Temperance Union who tell him of their concerns about army Canteens selling alcoholic beverages. Canteens were eventually prohibited by law in 1901Signs the Gold Standard Act (31 Stat 45), establishing gold as the primary standard for redeeming paper moneyAppoints a Second Philippine Commission, tasked with establishing a civil government for the archipelago. Future president William Howard Taft is its chairSigns the Hawaii Organic Act (31 Stat 141). Hawai'i islands become organized into the Territory of Hawai'iUS troops enter Peking, (together with troops from European powers) without congressional approval to quell the "Boxer Rebellion." In this uprising, Chinese nationalists had massacred foreigners. The rebellion poses a threat to Secretary Hay's "Open Door Policy" policy, thus leading to U.S. interventionRenominated at the Republican National Convention in Philadelphia, PA (the convention began 06/19/1900 and ended 06/21/1900). Theodore Roosevelt is nominated for Vice President to replace former Vice President Garret A. Hobart who had died in 1899Secretary of State John Hay releases his second "Open Door Policy" note, addressing the United States' interest in preserving a united China as it experiences civil unrest and foreign intervention in the "Boxer Rebellion."Formally accepts the Republican nomination for his second term, as President, in Canton, OhioReelected as president. Defeats Democratic Nominee William Jennings Bryan, winning 292 electoral votes (65.3%) over Bryan's 155 (34.7%). Receives 51.7% of the popular vote (7,219,193 votes)Fourth annual message to CongressSigns the Platt Amendment (31 Stat 897) to the Army Appropriation Act of 1901, granting the U.S. sweeping control over Cuba's domestic and foreign affairsSecond Inaugural AddressSigns the Platt Amendment (31 Stat 897) to the Army Appropriation Act of 1901, granting the U.S. sweeping control over Cuba's domestic and foreign affairsFilipino revolutionary leader Aguinaldo Proclaims the end of rebellion in the PhilippinesReleases a statement announcing that he will not run for a third termIn Remarks at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York, endorses tariff reciprocity to promote foreign trade and commerce with the United StatesShot by anarchist Leon Czolgosz the day following his remarks at Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New YorkIn Special Message to Congress urges leases concerning fur seal hunting on islands off the coast of AlaskaMessage to the House and Senate convened in an extra session to urge Congress to consider revisions of the Dingley Tariff ActAddress at the Cleveland Memorial Exercises in Carnegie Hall regarding the legacy of former President, Grover ClevelandBy Proclamation, establishes Navajo National MonumentIn a Special Message to Congress recommends new legislation regarding Puerto Rico as the Puerto Rico Legislative Assembly failed to pass the usual appropriation billsHelen “Nellie” Taft, wife of President Taft, suffers a debilitating stroke and the effects linger. She is somewhat recovered within a yearAddress at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania dedicating a monument commemorating those in the Regular Army of the United States who fought in the Battle of GettysburgIn a Special Message to Congress proposes a 2% net income tax on all corporations other than banks. The intention is to gain revenue lost by tariff reductions. Proposes a constitutional amendment for personal income tax collectionCongress passes Senate Joint Resolution 40, (36 Stat 184) proposing the 16th Amendment to the Constitution to give Congress the "power to lay and collect taxes on incomes. . . " This action does not require presidential agreementBy Proclamation, declares the establishment of the Oregon Caves National MonumentSigns the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act (36 Stat 11), somewhat decreases tariff rates but less than desired by progressives.. Also creates Court of Customs Appeals and provides for a Board of General Appraisers. The law also includes authority "to appoint such persons as may be required" to assist him in the discharge of the duties imposed. This last language (from 36 Stat 83) was used by Taft to establish what he referred to as a "Tariff Board."Requests the Department of the Interior to provide him with a full record of matters related to the dispute between Gifford Pinchot and Secretary of the Interior Richard BallingerIn a Letter to Secretary of the Interior after reviewing the evidence provided by L. R. Glavis and the Department of the Interior writes: "It is sufficient to say that the case attempted to be made by Mr. Glavis embraces only shreds of suspicions without any substantial evidence." The President adds that " are therefore authorized to dismiss L. R. Glavis from the service of the Government for filing a disingenuous statement, unjustly impeaching the official integrity of his superior officers."Remarks as the guest of honor at a banquet of Boston Chamber of Commerce. Primarily discusses banking reform and the effects of the tariff billBegins tour of U.S. South and West. The tour ends on November 10, 1909. Starting from Beverly, NY, travels to Chicago, Denver, Salt Lake City, Spokane, Tacoma, Portland, San Francisco, Fresno, Los Angeles, Prescott, Corpus Christi, Dallas, St. Louis, New Orleans, Macon, Charleston, Richmond, and NorfolkOfficially supports the Payne-Aldrich Act and Tariffs while in Minnesota on his tour. This is later known as the Winona Speech, and seen as revealing his alliance with "old guard" rather than reformersIn an Address in Denver, CO, discusses a corporation tax that was passed as a part of the Payne-Aldrich Tariff ActBy Proclamation, establishes the Natural Bridges National Monument in UtahIn an Address at Spokane, Washington, outlines his administration’s policy on the conservation of natural resourcesIn Address at the Phoenix City Hall in Phoenix, AZ, expresses support for Arizona statehoodNew
eventIn Remarks at the Waterways Convention in New Orleans, LA, advocates for improvement to waterways like the Mississippi and its tributariesIn the final speech of his tour, makes Remarks in Richmond, VA. Outlines his policy goals, such as the conservation of resources, anti-trust laws, and the establishment of a postal savings bankCollier's Magazine publishes an article by Louis R. Glavis Chief of the Field Division of the General Land Office, in which Secretary of Interior, Richard Ballinger, is charged with conspiracy in defrauding public land in the Alaska coal fields in 1907-08 during the Roosevelt Administration. At the time, Ballinger was Land Commissioner. This charge implicates the Taft Administration because in 1909 Ballinger is serving as Secretary of the Interior.Two Americans serving as officers in a rebel army in Nicaragua are captured and executed by Nicaraguan government troops. US Secretary of State Philander Knox became more overtly supportive of the rebels. Previously the Administration had opted not to interveneExecutive Order 1142 requires subordinate officials in the executive branch to submit requests to Congress only through the Head of the DepartmentIssues Executive Order 1143, establishing a test for those who want to enter the Diplomatic Service, as well as creating a system where promotion by merit is possibleDirects that the US break diplomatic relations with Nicaragua referring to his lack of "respect and confidence." The New York Times reports (12/02/1909, p. 1) that the Administration is sending a cruiser to the region with 800 MarinesFirst annual message to CongressGeneral Leonard Wood, originally an army surgeon, is named to be Army Chief of Staff (effective in April 1910) by Secretary of War Dickinson. He had been personal physician to Presidents Cleveland and McKinley. He becomes a prominent and controversial advocate of military preparedness. President Harding in 1921 appoints him as Governor General of the PhilippinesFires Head of US Forest Services, Gifford Pinchot. Pinchot had written Senator Jonathan Dolliver (R-IA) saying Taft had acted "through a mistaken impression of facts" with respect to the “Ballinger Affair.” Pinchot, the former Governor of Pennsylvania and close advisor to President Theodore Roosevelt. Taft's action deepens the "progressive split" in the Republican Party between Taft and RooseveltIn a Special Message urges Congressional attention to the conservation of resources amid dwindling public domain acreageAddresses the National Civic Federation at the Belasco Theatre in Washington D.C., urging states to pass uniform legislation regarding the conservation of resources, marriage, and divorceBy House Joint Resolution 109, a Joint Committee is formed to investigate the Department of the Interior and the disposal of public lands--i.e., the Ballinger Affair. Hearings begin 01/26/1910. Louis R. Glavis, accuser of Ballinger, is represented by attorney Louis D. Brandeis, later to be appointed to the Supreme CourtAddresses the Republican Club of New York at the Lincoln Birthday Banquet. Taft reviews the key promises of the 1908 Republican Platform and describes their implementationNominates former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes to the Supreme Court. The Senate confirms his appointment on 05/02/1910 and he is sworn in 10/10/1910. Hughes resigns from the court in 1916 to become the Republican presidential nominee–the only justice ever to do soTroops land from US naval vessels off the coast of the Nicaraguan port BluefieldsAt Taft's direction, Attorney General Wickersham obtains an injunction from United States District Judge David P. Dyer, to prevent Western Railroads from raising freight ratesSigns the "Mann-Elkin Act (36 Stat 539) expanding the scope of the Interstate Commerce Commission to incorporate regulation of interstate oil pipelines, telegraph, telephone, radio, and cable companies, and creates a "commerce court" to consider all cases relating to enforcement action of the Interstate Commerce Commission. The court was intended as a check on the ICCSigns conservation bill (36 Stat 933) providing funding for the construction, repair, and preservation of certain public works on rivers and harbors, and for other purposes. In his Message he complains that the amounts appropriated are inadequateSigns the Postal Savings Bank Act (36 Stat 814), creating the saving stamp at designated post offices that could be traded for bonds with interestSigns the Mann Act (36 Stat 825), prohibiting interstate or international transport of women for “immoral” purposes such as “prostitution or debauchery”Addresses the National Conservation Congress meeting in St. Paul, MN. Reviews the actions taken by his Administration and that of Roosevelt to address the "waste and dissipation of our national wealth."International Court of Arbitration reaches a resolution in a dispute between US and Britain over fisheries in Newfoundland. (Link to pdf volume including the decision of the Court.) An observer called it "the most notable of the many international arbitrations in which the United States has participated." Thus it was an "encouraging triumph" for the cause of arbitration in settling international disputesThe National Urban League, devoted to fighting racial discrimination, is founded in New YorkThe Republican party went from a 65% majority in the Senate to 54%. In the House, the Republicans suffered a major defeat, going from a 56% majority to 41% minority. The new House included members identified as "Progressive Republican" and SocialistSecond Annual MessageRelease of majority report of the Congressional committee investigating the Ballinger/Pinchot controversy. The report clears Ballinger of any illegality in disposing of the Cunningham coal claims. The report recommends that Alaskan coal fields not be sold to private interests, but retained as public lands, leased, and developed "to the benefit of all the people." The second point was understood as an endorsement of the Pinchot position on Alaskan coal fieldsBy Special Message submits Canadian reciprocal trade agreement (not a formal treaty) to Congress, urging its "prompt enactment."Signs Act (36 Stat 898) creating a commission to a monument or memoral to Abraham Lincoln including President Taft, Senator Shelby Cullom, House Speaker Joseph Cannon, Senator George Peabody Wetmore, Rep. Samuel Walker McCall, Senator Hernando Money, and future House Speaker Champ ClarkBy Special Message to Congress, recommends that Congress approve the Constitution of New MexicoSigns Joint resolution providing for a commission to investigate the cost of handling second class mail (36 Stat 1458). The commission is to recommend appropriate rates for various kinds of second-class postal matter. The Postal Service is in deficit. What postage should be charged?Letter accepting the resignation of Secretary of the Interior Ballinger. Nominates Walter L. Fisher as Secretary of the Interior. Fisher was known to be a friend of Gifford Pinchot; had been President of the Conservation League of America and was at the time serving on the Railroad Securities CommissionThe White House announces large joint maneuvers of Army and Navy troops near Mexico. Although this is simply characterized as "maneuvers" newspapers note the failure of the Mexican government to protect the property rights of foreigners in some part of Mexico. This is linked to insurrection against the Mexican government by Yaqui IndiansIssued orders to the Army Chief of Staff concerning the mobilization and his expectations for the conduct of the troops. The text of the order is reproduced in full in the Third Annual Message. Also in the Message are related communications extending through AprilTriangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in Manhattan, NY, kills 146 workers (primarily young female European immigrants). The fire highlights the absence of workplace safety regulations: there was only one fire escape which burned, immovable machinery trapped the workers, and doors were locked by the factory managers to prevent theftRemarks in New York on the reciprocal tariff with Canada. Discusses the strong pricing advantages the US has in comparison to Canada, and urges that the US generally remove trade restrictionsIn Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States, the Supreme Court rules in favor of the dissolution of the Standard Oil Company, having violated the Sherman Antitrust Act and restricted interstate trade. However they specified that only "unreasonable" contracts in restraint of trade were prohibitedIn United States v. American Tobacco Company, the Supreme Court finds the American Tobacco Company in violation of the Sherman Antitrust ActThe U.S. and Nicaragua sign a convention establishing dollar diplomacy. The Senate rejected the agreementSpecial Message concerning the Pure Food and Drugs Act. Urges specific amendments to prohibit sales of drugs not proven effective or sold based on "knowingly false misstatements of fact as to the effect of the preparations."Special Message to the Senate explaining elimination from Chugach National Forest of land fronting on Controller Bay. This decision is connected to the Ballinger controversySigns the legislation implementing the Canadian Tariff Reciprocity Agreement (37 Stat 4), promoting reciprocal trade with Canada. The Act specifies equivalent tariffs will be imposed on categories of products traded between the two countries. The agreement was later rejected by the CanadiansSigns general arbitration treaties with France and England. The three nations agree to international measures that would reduce armaments and impose economic boycotts on nations who attack any of the three signers. Disputes and claims between the signers will be settled at The Hague, NetherlandsSenate committee votes to strike out the most important provision of the arbitration treaty, language authorizing a Joint High Commission to decide what issues would be arbitrated in the event the parties disagreed. The President is reported to plan "an appeal to the country."Vetoes House Joint Resolution 14 for the admission as states of Arizona and New Mexico. He objects to the inclusion of judicial recall, "injurious to the cause of free government." The veto was unchallengedVetoes tariff reductions on wool and woolen goods. Veto sustained in the House on 08/18/1911. Taft advocated revising the tariffs one schedule [i.e., general category of tariff] at a time, and in such cases, based on information from the Tariff BoardVetoes an act removing tariffs on numerous article in the metal, cotton, wool, and leather schedules. "The bill is so carelessly drawn that it would inevitably lead to the greatest uncertainty as to what articles are or are not covered. . . " The veto is sustained in the House on 08/18/1911Signs Senate Joint Resolution 57 (37 Stat 39) admitting New Mexico and Arizona as states conditional on Arizona voters adopting a constitutional amendment removing the provision Taft had objected to in his 08/15/1911 veto messageVetoes "An act to reduce the duties on manufactures of cotton" noting that it also changes duties on chemicals, oils, paints, and metals. Object that the action was taken without systematic investigation of the effects of the changes, and in some cases without explaining the basis for the changes. The veto was unchallengedThe Canadian Tariff Reciprocity Agreement, signed on 07/26/1911, is rejected during the Canadian parliamentary electionsTours the western United States. With stops in Nebraska, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, Utah, Nevada, Montana, Wyoming, South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Illinois. Substantively in remarks he mentions the arbitration treaties (frequently), his intent to enforce the anti-trust act, to act with respect to tariffs, and to pursue peace treaties. On the trip, he visited twenty-six states, a record for presidents up to that point.The US files an anti-trust suit against the United States Steel Corporation in Trenton N.J. Individual defendants include J. Pierpont Morgan, John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, E. H. Gary, and Henry C. Frick. The issues are not judicially resolved until a Supreme Court ruling in 1920. By some accounts, this case deepened the split between Taft and Roosevelt in part because Roosevelt was named in the Taft administration suit as having approved anti-competitive behavior by U.S. SteelIn Remarks in Chicago at the 1st Regiment Armory, denies any political motive in filing suit against United States Steel. Discusses business regulation in general, attacking "unlawful combinations." Also defends at length the idea of a tariff commission, illustrating how members of Congress can change tariffs in ways that produce unintended, undesired effectsIn Remarks to the Hamilton Club of Chicago, Taft seems to predict defeat for the Republicans in 1912. This is widely noted in newspapersThird Annual MessageSun Yat-Sen is elected provisional president of the Republic of China, and the New York Times reports that the founding of the Republic of China is celebrated in the United StatesProclaims the admission of New Mexico into the UnionInforms the Cuban government that conditions in Cuba are a cause of "grave concern" to the United States, and that if "a threatened situation" is not avoided, the United States will "consider what measures it must take. . ." The implication is of US interventionIn a lengthy Special Message to Congress, "On Economy and Efficiency in the Government Service," argues for the creation of a unified executive budget and accurate information for Administration officials. Ultimately the reforms are realized in the Harding AdministrationIn the wake of the Chinese Revolution, the 15th U.S. Infantry Regiment occupies the Chinese city Tientsin [Tianjin]. The New York Times of 01/21/1911 devotes an entire page (p. 45) to "The Part Our Troops Will Play in China's Troubles."As recommended by the Secretary of State, it is reported that the President has instructed the War Department to be prepared to respond to instability in Mexico by mobilizing 15,000 troops at the borderProclaims the admission of Arizona into the UnionFormer President Theodore Roosevelt declares that he "will accept the nomination for President if it is tendered to me." This confirms the suspicion of many that he will challenge Taft for the nomination, aspiring to a third term in officeBy Special Message transmits to Congress the Annual Report of the Postmaster General and discusses the report of the special commission on second-class mail authorized 03/04/1911. The commission generally confirmed that a rate increase in second-class mail would be justified and desirableBy Proclamation, warns US citizens not to participate in "serious disturbances and forcible resistance to the authorities" in MexicoBy Proclamation warns US Citizens against unauthorized export of arms or munitions to Mexico in light of the domestic violence thereThe first two of three thousand cherry trees are planted in Washington DC by First Lady Helen Taft and the wife of the Japanese Ambassador, Viscountess Chinda. The trees are a gift from the city of Tokyo. The planting was little noted at the timeSigns act creating the Federal Children’s Bureau (37 Stat 79), as an agency within the Department of Labor "to investigate and report upon all matters pertaining to the welfare of children and child life. This is the first of agency in the world to focus exclusively on improving the lives of children and familiesThe British luxury liner the Titanic sinksAppoints Julia C. Lathrop (of Hull House and the Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy) head of the Children’s Bureau. She was first woman appointed to a major federal post. The New York Times reported that she received "the highest salary of any woman in the Government employ."Congress adopts, by 2/3 vote of both Houses, a Joint Resolution proposing an Amendment to the Constitution providing for direct election of Senators. The President does not have a Constitutional role in the amendment processAuthorizes deployment of Marines to protect U.S. property. Naval vessels are sent from Key West to Guantanamo. An armed rebellion ("the race war") by Afro-Cubans has been under way for several weeksRepublican National Convention in Chicago, Illinois. Amid great controversy over convention delegates claimed by Theodore Roosevelt, the nomination goes to President Taft on the first ballot (on 06/22/1912). Roosevelt is in fact never formally put in nomination. James S. Sherman renominated for Vice PresidentSigns Act limiting the work day to eight-hour day for all workers employed by the United States, the Territories, or the District of ColumbiaRoosevelt backers gather in Chicago's Orchestra Hall to nominate Theodore Roosevelt as an IndependentDemocratic National Convention in Baltimore, MD. There were six nominees for president. On the 46th ballot, Woodrow Wilson won the nomination. Indiana Governor Thomas R. Marshall was selected as vice-presidential nominee, despite not being Wilson's preferenceRemarks accepting renomination for President of the U.S. by the Republican partyTheodore Roosevelt accepts nomination for President from the Progressive Party (Bull Moose Party) meeting in ChicagoWoodrow Wilson formally accepts the Democratic nominationMarines arrive in Nicaragua from the Canal Zone amid widespread fighting associated with a power struggle. A marine contingent remained in Nicaragua until 1933Signs the Panama Canal Act (37 Stat 560) which exempts American ships from paying tollsU.S. Marines move to Dominican Republic (Santo Domingo) to restore order during the civil warProclaims the death of Vice President John Sherman on 10/30/1912Election Day. Democrat Woodrow Wilson defeats incumbent Republican President Taft. Wilson wins 435 electoral votes (81.9%) to eight for Taft (1.5%), and 41.8% of the popular vote. Progressive nominee Theodore Roosevelt receives 88 electoral votes (16.6%) and 27.4% of the popular voteBy Proclamation, sets toll rates for vessels using the Panama Canal. This uses the authority created in the act of 08/24/1912Fourth Annual MessageBy Executive Order, restores lands to the public domain in the state of ArizonaVetoes immigration bill objected to on many grounds by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor in a memo included with the message. Taft particularly stressed the problems of requiring literacy tests for immigrants. The Senate voted to override on 02/18/1913, but the House sustained the veto (5 votes short of override) on 02/19/1913Declines to intervene in Mexico on the occasion of the violent overthrow of the government of President Francisco MaderoThe Secretary of State proclaims that the 16th Amendment is ratified, which authorizes the federal government to collect income taxesVetoes the Webb-Kenyon Interstate liquor Act “After giving this proposed enactment full consideration, I believe it to be a violation of the interstate commerce clause of the Constitution, in that it is in substance and effect a delegation by Congress to the states of the power of regulating interstate commerce in liquors which is vested exclusively in Congress." The veto was overridden in the Senate on 02/28/1913 and in the House on 03/01/1913. (37 Stat 699) This is the only Taft veto to be overriddenSigns "an Act to create a Department of Labor” (37 Stat 736), splitting the Department of Labor and Commerce into two departments, each with cabinet statusInauguration of Woodrow WilsonAppears before Congress to speak on tariffs, marking the first time since 1800 that a president had addressed Congress in personCabinet meeting discusses segregation by race in the Federal bureaucracy. Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels recorded in his diary “The President said he made no promises in particular to Negroes, except to do them justice, and he did not wish to see them have less positions than they now have; but he wished the matter adjusted in a way to make the least friction.” This is widely interpreted as an indication that Wilson would not oppose segregationExtends diplomatic recognition to the fledgling Republic of ChinaCalifornia passes and Governor Hiram Johnson signs the Webb-Hartley Law, known as the Alien Land Law of 1913. This limits land leases for agricultural purposes to a length of three years and bars further land purchases by “aliens ineligible to citizenship.” The principle target group was understood to be JapaneseSeventeenth Amendment enacted, replacing state legislature nomination of U.S. senators with direct popular electionAddresses foreign policy with Mexico during the Mexican Revolution and states that the United States will maintain a policy of neutrality until the civil unrest in the nation has run its courseSigns the Revenue Act of 1913, which included the Underwood-Simmons Tariff Act. (38 Stat 114) The Act substantially lowered tariff rates and reestablished a federal income taxBy pushing a switch in the White House, causes an explosion blowing up the Gamboa Dike, causing water to flow into the Panama Canal, linking the Atlantic and PacificFirst Annual MessageSigns the Federal Reserve Act, which creates the Federal Reserve SystemAddresses Joint Session of Congress regarding Tampico incident. Requests authorization from Congress to use force in Mexico following Tampico incident, when U.S. Marines were detained by Mexican officials in the port of Tampico on 04/09/1914Signs “An Act To provide for cooperative agricultural extension work between the agricultural colleges in the several States [“land grant colleges”] receiving the benefits of an Act of Congress approved July second eighteen hundred and sixty-two. . .” (38 Stat 372) Also known as the Smith-Lever Act. The goal was to give instruction and practical demonstrations to farmers throughout the statesProclaims for the first time the official observance of Mother’s Day on the second Sunday in MayArchduke Franz Ferdinand is assassinated, contributing to the start of World War IEllen Louise Axson Wilson, the President’s first wife, died on this date of Bright disease. She was the mother of three daughters and an accomplished painter. Her efforts concerning the housing conditions of African Americans in Washington D.C. bore fruit in the form of legislation about “alley dwellings” (signed into law on 09/25/1914; 38 Stat 716) on housing standards in WashingtonThe Panama Canal officially opens after decades of controversyDeclares official U.S. neutrality after Germany launches war on Belgium, France, and Great Britain on 08/04/1914Signs legislation (38 Stat 717) establishing the Federal Trade Commission, a new government board empowered to investigate and publicize unsound business practicesSigns the Clayton Antitrust Act, which defines unethical business practices and upholds various labor rightsAddresses Congress about legislative achievements, discussing the Underwood-Simmons Act, the Federal Reserve Act, the Federal Trade Commission, and the Clayton Antitrust ActIn Midterm Elections, the Democrats increase their majority in the Senate (from 51 to 56 seats) and retain their majority in the House (from 291 to 230 seats)Receives a delegation of Afro-Americans who challenge him to take action to desegregate the Federal bureaucracy. The New York Times wrote that the President stated that “never since he had been in office had he been addressed in such an insulting fashion.” He said the policy of segregation had been enforced for the comfort and the best interests of both racesSecond Annual MessageAlexander Graham Bell makes first transcontinental phone callSigns bill creating the Rocky Mountain National Park (38 Stat 798). “The Secretary of the Interior may, in his discretion . . . grant easements or rights of way for steam, electric, or similar transportation upon or across the par.”Vetoes bill requiring literacy tests for immigrants, stating that these tests deny equal opportunity to the uneducated. This veto was sustained on 02/14/1915 in the HouseFirst ever showing of a motion picture in the White House was of Birth of a Nation. The President watched with his daughters, his cabinet and their wives. It was later stated that “the President was entirely unaware of the [racist] character of the play before it was presented and has at no time expressed his approbation of it.”Issues response to Germany after British passenger liner Lusitania is sunk by German forces on 05/07/1915Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, an anti-war advocate, resigns in protest over Wilson’s response to the Lusitania, fearing he will draw the nation into warUS Marines Land in Haiti following violent political killings. (See the New York Times of July 29, 1915) Between 1911 and 1915 seven presidents of Haiti had been assassinated or overthrown. US policymakers were concerned about German influence and the safety of American assetsDispatches another Lusitania note to Germany, threatening warTreaty is signed between Haiti and the United States; ratified by the Chamber of Deputies on 10/06/1915 and by the Haitian Senate on 11/11/1915. The treaty created a Haitian “constabulary” under the control of US Marines; gave the US control of Haitian finances; and granted the right to intervene when the US determined it to be necessary. Ratified by the U.S. Senate 02/28/1916; ratified by the President 03/20/1916Third Annual MessagePresident Wilson marries his second wife, Edith Bolling, at her home in Washington D.C.Nominates Louis B. Brandeis, the first Jewish justice in U.S. history, to the U.S. Supreme CourtSpeaking tour of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Indiana to promote military preparednessIssues executive order to increase the strength of the U.S. ArmyLouis B. Brandeis is confirmed to the Supreme Court after a long, tumultuous investigation by the United States Senate and the first public Senate confirmation hearing in United States historySigns the National Defense Act, (39 Stat 166) a sweeping update of law organizing the military. Expands the size of the Army; brings state militias further under federal control; grants the president authority to mobilize the National Guard in the case of emergency; creates the Reserve Officer Training CorpsSupreme Court Justice Charles Evans Hughes accepts the Republican Nomination for President, the first and only time a sitting Justice has been Presidential nomineeWilson renominated by Democratic National Convention meeting in St. LouisHaitian Treaty negotiated on 09/16/1915 officially proclaimedSigns the Federal Farm Loan Act, (39 Stat 360) which increases credit to rural family farmersBomb explodes in San Francisco during a Preparedness Day parade, killing ten and wounding fortySigns An Act to Establish a National Park Service (39 Stat 535) within the Department of the Interior. Will manage the existing 35 national parksSigns Army Appropriations Act of 1916 (39 Stat 649) that created the Council of National Defense “for the coordination of industries and resources for the national security and welfare.” The Council consisted of six Cabinet membersAccepts the Democratic nomination for President of the United StatesSigns the Adamson Eight-Hour Act (39 Stat 721) during railroad workers’ strike, establishing an eight-hour workday for interstate railroad workersElection Day. Wilson defeats Republican Charles E. Hughes, winning 52.2% of the Electoral College and 49.2% of the popular voteJeannette Rankin, Republican of Montana, is the first woman elected to the United States Congress. She later voted against declarations of war in both WWI and WWIIFourth Annual MessageAttempts to mediate a settlement of the World War by directing his Secretary of State to dispatch peace notes to European powersDelivers "peace without victory" speech to the Senate, in which he proposes peaceful terms for ending the warVetoes bill regulating immigration and residence of aliens in the United States. Wilson’s veto is overridden by the House on 02/01/1917, and in the Senate on 02/05/1917German Ambassador to the U.S. presents to Secretary of State Lansing a note declaring German intention to restart unrestricted submarine warfare as of the next dayIn an Address to a Joint Session of Congress announces that as a result of Imperial Germany’s decision to threaten vessels of neutral countries through submarine warfare, U.S. is severing diplomatic relations with Germany. If U.S. ships are threatened, he will return and ask for authority to use any means necessary in their defenseRequests authority from Congress should a war declaration become necessarySecond Inaugural AddressAddresses a joint session of Congress requesting a declaration of war against GermanySigns declaration of war against GermanyCommittee on Public Information established to coordinate wartime propaganda and censorship effortsAddresses the American people in a written statement about the war, deeming it the “supreme test of the nation.”Signs act authorizing $5 Billion in debt for national security (40 Stat 35) and defense; the instruments come to be called Liberty BondsSigns the Selective Service Act, implementing a federally mandated draft lotterySigns the Espionage Act to punish interference with the foreign relations, neutrality, and foreign commerce of the United States. Wilson had requested in his speech on 04/02/1917. (40 Stat 217) This was a hugely controversial lawAmerican troops begin to disembark in FranceBy Executive Order following passage of a Congressional Joint Resolution, directs the seizure of nearly 90 German commercial vessels in US portsThe Council on National Defense (see above 08/29/1916) adopts a new system for military purchases to be known as the War Industries Board.Notifies his advisor Colonel Edward M. House that he approves a proposed British declaration on Palestine. This declaration is made public on 11/02/1917 and known as the Balfour Declaration. Wilson asks that no publicity be given to his approvalFifth Annual MessageDelivers "Fourteen Points" speech to Congress, outlining his program of peace to end World War ISigns the Sedition Act (40 Stat 553), which further limited freedom of expression by forbidding “disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language” about the United States government, flag, and armed forcesIssues executive order transferring the War Industries Board (see 07/28/1917) to independent agency status to coordinate the purchase of war suppliesSocialist leader and sometime Presidential candidate, Eugene Debs gives a speech objecting to the ongoing war. He is arrested and charged under the Espionage Act with inciting disloyalty to the United States. On 09/14/1918 he was sentenced to 10 years in prisonIn an “Address” to the nation released as a written statement, urges Americans rise above the “mob spirit” that is seen in many parts of the country. “There have been many lynchings, and every one of them has been a blow at the heart of ordered law and human justice.”Defends women's suffrage in an Address to a Joint session of CongressAbout this time, the "Spanish flu” pandemic peaks in the United StatesIn midterm elections, the Republican party’s 1 seat majority in the House was increased by 25; and the Republicans took the majority in the Senate gaining 5 seatsAddresses Congress regarding Allied and German armistice. “The war thus comes to an end; for, having accepted these terms of armistice, it will be impossible for the German command to renew it.”Signs the Wartime Prohibition Act, part of an Agricultural Appropriations Bill (40 Stat 1045) temporarily banning the manufacture of alcohol for domestic saleSixth Annual MessageTours Europe to take part in World War I peace negotiations and promote plan for a League of Nations. Begins with three speeches in France, then gives eight speeches in England, 19 speeches in Italy and seven more speeches in Paris in the course of the negotiationsProclamation announcing the death of Theodore RooseveltFinal state ratifies the 18th Amendment, launching prohibitionDelivers remarks at the opening of the Paris Peace ConferencePresents League of Nations draft to the Paris Peace Conference in order to promote international cooperation and secure peace and securitySails for homeArrives in Boston, gives Address relating progress in peace negotiations. ". . .I have come back to report progress, and I do not believe that the progress is going to stop short of the goal."The Supreme Court rules unanimously in Schenck v. United States that the Espionage Act was constitutional and did not violate the First Amendment. In this case, Justice Holmes articulates the “clear and present danger” test for speech that can be constitutionally prohibitedAddress in New York responding to criticisms of the proposed League of NationsDeparts New York to returns to Europe aboard the naval transport ship George WashingtonThe Supreme Court rules unanimously in Debs v. United States, that Deb’s public advocacy against military recruitment and the draft was a violation of the Espionage Act. Given the ruling in Schenck, Deb’s conviction was valid and he subsequently was imprisonedIn Paris for peace treaty negotiations. Returns to the U.S. on 07/08/1919An anarchist explodes a bomb in front of the home of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer in Washington D.C. There were a number of attacks on officials across the country that dayCongress approves the 19th AmendmentIn an Address to the Senate, submits the Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations for ratificationWashington D.C. race riot gets underway when off-duty white military personnel enter South-East Washington to avenge an alleged assault on a white woman. The President ordered the deployment of federal troops to restore order. At least 15 died in the conflictChicago race riot follows drowning of a black teenager hit in the head by a rock thrown by a white man. Eventually 38 people died and over 500 injured with many structures burned. Order was restored when Illinois Govern Lowden ordered the intervention of the national guard on the evening of 07/30/1919Senate Committee on Foreign Relations begins hearings on the Versailles TreatyVetoes a Bill for the repeal of the daylight-savings law which is then passed over his veto on 08/19/1919The President makes Remarks to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in a meeting at the White House.Tours nationally to build support for the Treaty of Versailles and the League of NationsIn a relatively unusual public reference to race relations, in a speech in Helena, MT, says: “I hope you will not think it inappropriate if I stop here to express my shame as an American citizen at the race riots that have occurred in some places in this country where men have forgotten humanity and justice and ordered society and have run amuck. That constitutes a man not only the enemy of society but his own enemy and the enemy of justice.”The Elaine (Arkansas) race massacre. Fueled by fears of a black “insurrection,” armed white mobs, including soldiers from a local military base, assaulted African-Americans, killing more than 100Suffers a serious stroke, rendering him incapacitated. His wife Edith Wilson manages the office of the president for the remainder of Wilson’s tenureVetoes the Volstead Act (41 Stat 305) prohibiting intoxicating beverages, objecting to the part dealing with wartime prohibition (not the enforcement of the Eighteenth Amendment). On 10/28/2019 Congress passes the Volstead Act over Wilson’s vetoThe first round of “Palmer Raids” arrest more than 200 immigrants suspected of revolutionary activity, and hold them for deportationSenate fails to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, reflecting feelings of isolationismSeventh Annual MessageFurther major round of “Palmer Raids” begin and continue for several weeks. Thousands are arrested and hundreds eventually deported, many treated brutally. This event is important in motivating the founding of the American Civil Liberties UnionIn a 4-3 decision (with two recusals) the Supreme Court decides in United States vs. U.S. Steel that U.S. Steel’s structure and action did not violate the Sherman and Clayton Acts. Size alone is not illegal, and sustained anticompetitive behavior is requiredBy a vote of 49-35, seven short of the required two-thirds majority, the Senate fails to ratify the Versailles TreatyVetoes congressional resolution (“Knox-Porter Resolution”) that declared an end to the war with Germany, citing the resolution’s inability to hold the German government accountable for its actions. Wilson fears support for the resolution would tarnish the American name. The veto is sustaine in the House on 05/28/1920Warren G. Harding wins nomination for President at the Republican National Convention on the 10th ballot. He had been 5th among top nominees on the first ballot. Calvin Coolidge is the Vice-Presidential nomineeDemocratic Convention nominates for President James M Cox, Governor of Ohio and a former member of the House of Representatives and a newspaper publisher. The Vice-Presidential nominee is Franklin D. RooseveltWarren Harding Address accepting the Republican NominationJames M. Cox Address accepting the Democratic NominationNineteenth Amendment ratified, granting women the right to vote after a decades-long battle for women’s suffrage. The passage of the Amendment is certified by Secretary of State Colby on 08/26/1920Explosive detonated on busiest corner of Wall Street, killing 38 and injuring hundreds in the deadliest act of terrorism on U.S. soil up to that dateWarren G. Harding is elected to succeed President WilsonWins Nobel Peace Prize for his peace efforts during World War I. Second sitting president to receive this honorEighth Annual MessageSigns a Joint Resolution declaring that a variety of war-related Acts, Proclamations, and Joint Resolutions are repealed, including the Espionage ActWarren G. Harding Inaugural AddressBy Proclamation convenes a special session of Congress starting 04/11/1921Address to a Joint Session on Urgent National Problems. Among other topics, urges adoption of revised tariffs “based on the policy of protection,” and modernizing of transportation systemsRemarks at the unveiling of a statue in New York’s Central park to honor Simon Bolivar. Of the “spirit” of the United States toward Latin America, says “No selfishness impels, no greed is urging, no envy incites, no hatred is actuating.”The Senate ratifies the Thompson-Urrutia Treaty which had been signed on April 6, 1914, “for the settlement of their differences arising out of the events which took place on the Isthmus of Panama in November 1903.” It included language interpreted to be an apology for the seizure of Panama by T. Roosevelt.Signs the Emergency Quota Act (42 stat 5). In this temporary act, immigration was limited to 3 percent of the total number of foreign-born people from a particular country as recorded in the 1910 census. This was nearly identical to a bill pocket-vetoed by Wilson in February 1921. A permanent act was passed in 1924Remarks on welcoming Nobel Prize winner Marie Curie to the White House. Presents her a gram of radium for the support of her research as a gift from the American peopleRemarks to the Academy of Political Science, New York City. Praises the budget reforms underway following Taft’s Commission on Economy and Efficiency and the “sound methods” involvedSigns Emergency Tariff Act (42 Stat 9) to protect American farmers. Preceded in 1913 by the Underwood-Simmons Tariff (which lowered tariffs), and followed in 1922 by the Fordney-McCumber Tariff which raised themMemorial Day Address at Arlington Cemetery. Those buried there after the Civil War “did not enter upon the war among the States with primary purpose the end the institution of human slavery. . . . They first sought to maintain the Union, to keep it a power for the advancement of America and humanity. . . “By Executive Order 3474, pursuant to legislation from 1920, transfers jurisdiction of naval oil reserves to the Interior DepartmentGreenwood Massacre. In Tulsa, Oklahoma, a 19-year-old Black man was arrested on the charge of assaulting a white woman. The next day, white rioters attacked the Black community of Greenwood, killing dozens and destroying the most prosperous Black community in the U.S.James Weldon Johnson, Secretary of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People telegrams Harding asking for “an utterance. . .on the violence and reign of terror at Tulsa. . . “ (New York Times, 06/04/1921). The US Attorney General orders an investigation as to whether the disorders violated Federal lawIn Remarks at Lincoln University, Harding characterized the Tulsa riots as an “unhappy and distressing spectacle.” “No Government can wave a magical wand and take a race from bondage to citizenship in half a century.”Signs the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 which creates the “executive budget” transmitted by the President, who is assisted by a new Bureau of the Budget within the Treasury Department (42 Stat 20). The law also creates a new General Accounting Office “independent of the executive department and under the direction and control of the Comptroller General.” The Comptroller General is appointed by the President to a 15-year term with advice and consent of the SenateNominates former President William Howard Taft to be Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Taft is confirmed by Senate on the same day. Taft is the only former president to be named to the CourtSigns the Knox-Porter Resolution, (42 Stat 105) declaring an end to the state of war with the Imperial German Government and the Austro-Hungarian Government—officially ending World War IIn an Address to the Senate, urges the rejection of a bill to adjust compensation for World War I veterans, as “the enactment of the compensation bill in the midst of the struggle for readjustment and restoration would hinder every effort and greatly imperil the financial stability of our country.”Invites representatives from Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan to attend a conference on the Limitation of Armaments. Henceforth this is called “The Washington Conference.”U.S.-German “Treaty Restoring Friendly Relations” signed formally ending the War and securing US rights specified under Congressional Resolution of 07/02/1921In response to the "Battle of Blair Mountain," issues Proclamation demanding armed coal miners and operators protesting in West Virginia return home peaceably by noon 09/01/1921. A violent conflict had escalated following the killing of two local law enforcement officers by detectives hired by the coal company. At least 6000 miners fought with 3000 coal company detectivesIn response to a request from the West Virginia Governor, Federal troops are ordered to West Virginia to restore order. The official militia forces are reported to attack the miners with machine guns and bombs dropped from an airplane. (New York Times, 09/03/1921, p1). The President is reported to be leaving with a party of friends for weekend cruise on the yacht Mayflower. The conflict was largely ended by Federal Troops on 09/03/1921Addresses the Conference on Unemployment called by Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover. “I would have little enthusiasm for any proposed relief which seeks either palliation or tonic from the public treasury.”Signs proclamation to establish Armistice Day. This observance comes to be known as “Veterans Day.”Personally intervenes to organize a conference between the Railroad Labor Board and the Interstate Commerce Commission to see “adjustments” that could avert a threatened nationwide railroad strike on 10/30/1921. The strike is averted on 10/27/1921 when the Unions accept policy changes by the Railroad Labor BoardAddress on the issue of Race in Birmingham, Al. Calls for political equality and equal educational opportunity but advocates “recognition of the absolute divergence on things social and racial.” “Racial amalgamation there cannot be.” Senator James Thomas Heflin of Alabama was quoted in the Baltimore Sun saying “As far as the South is concerned, we hold to the doctrine that God Almighty has fixed the limits and boundary lines between the two races and no Republican living can improve upon His handiwork.”Signs the Snyder Act, funding Indian health care (“the relief of distress and conservation of health”). (42 Stat 208) The act also gave spending authority to the Bureau of Indian Affairs and authorized the employment of Indian judges in Courts of Indian OffensesBy Executive Order defines a standard practice for dating Executive Orders and Proclamations to include the phrase “in the year of our Lord.”Delivers Address at the burial of an unknown soldier at Arlington National CemeteryAddress opens Washington Conference on Disarmament. “Our hundred millions frankly want less of armament and none of war.” The conference agreements will be known as the “Washington Naval Treaty”Signs the Sheppard-Towner Maternity and Infancy Act (42 Stat 224), which grants matching federal funds to states to establish and operate prenatal and child health care centers. The legislation had been introduced in 1918 by Montana Representative Jeanette Rankin. Although this legislation proves to be temporary, it regarded as a vital part of developing social programs in the United StatesFirst Annual MessageBy Executive Order directs that a variety of historical papers (known as "the Revolutionary Archives") held at the State Department be transferred to the Library of Congress to be included in the Manuscript DivisionSigns Executive Order 3623 authorizing up to $4 million in funding for the relief of the “distressed and famine-stricken people of Russia.”Address Closing the Washington Conference. “Those of us who live another decade are more likely to witness a growth of public opinion, strengthened by the new experience, which will make nations more concerned with living to the fulfilment of God’s high intent than with agencies of warfare and destruction.”Washington Naval Treaty, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, signed by the USA, Britain, France, Italy and Japan with the goal of limiting naval armaments. The treaty will end if any signatory gives notice of its intent to “denounce” the treaty by 12/31/1934Address to the Senate Presenting the Treaties negotiated by the Washington Naval ConferenceSigns Capper-Volstead Act (42 Stat 388), also known as the Cooperative Marketing Act. This gives farm cooperatives limited exemption from anti-trust liabilityU.S. Supreme Court deems Nineteenth Amendment constitutional in Leser v. Garnett, further solidifying women’s suffrageAddress to Congress on Assistance to the Merchant Marine. Proposes the creation of a “merchant marine fund” to develop and maintain the merchant marineSpecial Message to Congress on planning for the 150th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of IndependenceSecretary of the Interior Albert Fall secretly leases federal oil reserves in Teapot Dome, Wyoming, to Harry F. Sinclair of the Mammoth Oil Company. Fall is eventually convicted of taking a $100,000 bribe. This crime, known as the Teapot Dome Scandal was considered the most significant scandal in U.S. politics before Watergate. In reaction, there are a variety of reforms, including the expansion of federal campaign finance disclosure requirementsThe Wall Street Journal breaks the story of the Teapot Dome lease for federal oil reserves without competitive biddingSenator La Follett of Wisconsin, introduces a Resolution (S Res 282) on 04/21/1922, calling for investigation of lease agreement for Elk Hills reserve. It is adopted by the Senate 58-0 with 38 not voting. (See Congressional Record April 29, 1922, p. 6096 ff; pdf of Cong Record.) The investigation was assigned to the Committee on Public Lands and was led by the most junior minority member, Senator Thomas WalshSigns Narcotic Drugs Import and Export Act (42 Stat 596) creating the Federal Narcotics Control Board with power to authorize imports of narcotics for medical or other legitimate purposes. Administration is vested in the TreasuryDelivers address at the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial. The event draws a huge crowd and is broadcast by radioDelivers an address to Congress regarding widespread railroad and coal strikesVetoes the Soldiers’ Bonus Bill, arguing that adjusted compensation for World War I veterans is less of a priority than is ameliorating the nation’s debt. On 09/20/1922, the veto is overridden in the House but sustained in the SenateSigns Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act (42 Stat 858). At a signing ceremony, Harding stated that “if we succeed in making effective the elastic provisions of the measure it will be the greatest contribution to tariff making in the nation’s history.”Signs Cable Act, (42 Stat 1021) which allows American women to retain citizenship after marrying a non-citizen. However, this right does not extend to women who marry “aliens ineligible for citizenship,” particularly Asian immigrant menFilling a vacancy caused by the death of Senator Thomas E. Watson, Rebecca L. Felton is appointed by Georgia Governor Thomas Hardwick. The appointment is largely symbolic since Congress would not be in session. Felton had been active for many years in Georgia politics, campaigned for women’s suffrage, and defended Southern racial politicsMidterm Elections. In the Senate, Republicans lost 6 seats but still had a 55% majority. In the House, the Republicans lost 77 seats but still had a 52% majoritySecond Annual MessageInterior Secretary Albert Fall announces his resignation effective March 4, 1922Vetoes bill granting pensions to certain soldiers, sailors, and marines of the Civil War. The veto was unchallengedDirects, through a military order to Maj. General Henry Allen, to immediately begin to return troops to the United States from Germany. The decision followed a White House meeting between the President and the Secretaries of War and StateIn Special Message to the Senate, urges adherence to the Permanent Court of International Justice at the Hague, which is established to address international causes by judicial methodsSupplemental contract with Mammoth Co., also without competitive bidding, (see 04/07/1922) to build navy fuel oil storage tanks at Atlantic coast; to fill tanks with fuel oil; with payment in navy royalty oilAlbert Fall resigns as Secretary of InteriorThe President’s planning for a transcontinental trip ending in Alaska became publicly known. It was criticized as being, in effect, a campaign tour. (New York Times, 04/11/1923, p1) The White House asserts the tour is non-partisanNew York legislature passes a bill repealing the “Mullan Gage State Liquor Enforcement” law, an attempt to attack prohibition by refusing to enforce the law, and a practical response to the volume of alcohol cases burdening court docketsDelivers an Address at the unveiling of an Alexander Hamilton statue in Washington, D.C.Letter to Judge E. H. Gary supports the abolition of the 12-hour day in the steel industryBy Executive Order, allows the Secretary of the Navy to enforce the prohibition of alcohol in the U.S. Virgin IslandsHarding starts a transcontinental tour, which was called the “Voyage of Understanding.” He gives addresses in St. Louis, Kansas City, Hutchinson (Kansas), Denver, Salt Lake City, Idaho Falls, Helena, and Meacham (Oregon), with many informal comments at stops along the way. Along the way, he explores national parks, drives a train locomotive, and takes part in an “Oregon Trail” pageantDeparts Tacoma, Washington for Alaska aboard a naval shipFirst President to visit the territory of Alaska; his visit includes Wrangell, Juneau, Seward, and Fairbanks (with a stop at McKinley National Park)Participates in a ceremony marking the completion of the railroad from Seward to Fairbanks by driving a gold spike into a railroad tieOnboard ship, Harding is reported to be working on upcoming speeches. He planned to address a large crowd in San FranciscoWhile traveling south by railroad, Harding is reported to be suffering from ptomaine poison. The illness is attributed to eating crabs or canned goods. In the coming days the symptoms will also suggest pneumonia and an enlarged heartWhile in a San Francisco hotel, dies of heart failure. Vice President Calvin Coolidge becomes President. Florence Harding, the President's wife declines to request an autopsy, which allows scope for speculation about the cause of deathCalvin Coolidge assumes presidency after the sudden death of President Harding. Sworn in at the Coolidge Home in Plymouth, VT by his father John C. Coolidge, a justice of the peaceAppoints commission, headed by Gifford Pinchot to investigate imminent Coal StrikeRecognizes Obregon Government of MexicoAnthracite Coal Strike Began in Pennsylvania. Miners return to work on 09/18/1923After ratification by all parties, the Treaty on Limitation of Naval Armament (Washington Naval Treaty) is proclaimed by the United StatesSenate Committee on Public Lands begins public hearings on the Teapot Dome scandalBy Proclamation creates the Carlsbad Cave National MonumentFirst Annual State of the Union Message. First broadcast of a presidential address.Accepts invitation for U.S. participation in Reparations ConferenceAppoints a committee to investigate the financial condition of Germany; the members are Charles C. Dawes, H. M. Robinson, Owen D. YoungProclamation—Exportation of Arms or Munitions of War to Mexico Unlawful. By Proclamation, President Coolidge prohibits the sale of munitions to Mexican rebelsAnnounces the selection of two special counsel to investigate the Teapot Dome scandalBy Proclamation, announces the death of former President Woodrow WilsonSigns Joint Resolution charging former Secretary of Interior and Secretary of Navy with fraud and corruption in execution of 1922 oil leasesStatement on Passage of a Resolution in the Senate Calling for the Resignation of Secretary of the Navy Denby in connection with the Teapot Dome scandal. Says he will await the advice of special counselAddress before the National Republican Club, New York City. Pledges to pursue all government officials guilty of fraud or corruption; urges adoption of Mellon tax planRadio Address to the Nation on the Occasion of Washington’s Birthday. First live radio broadcast from the White House. Reflects on the relationship of citizens to the governmentProclamation declaring that Exportation of Arms or Munitions to Honduras is UnlawfulAddress to the Annual Luncheon of the Associated Press. Primarily addressed to foreign issues, especially including the Dawes report on German reparations. Condemned corruption in government and called for restrained spending. The address was broadcast by radioVetoes Pension Increase for Civil War and Spanish-American War Veterans Bill. The Senate sustained the vetoVetoes “Bonus Bill” bill to provide twenty-year annuities for World War veterans. Coolidge stated that he believed that the bill was too financially costly. The House overrode his veto on 05/17/1924 and the Senate on 05/19/0924Signs Immigration Act of 1924 (“Johnson-Reed Act”) with highly restrictive immigration quotas. (43 Stat 153). Bars from entry any alien who because of race or nationality was ineligible for citizenshipSigns act authorizing Secretary of Interior to issue certificates of citizenship to all Native Americans. “Indian Citizenship Act of 1924” also known as the Snyder Act. (43 Stat 253) Previously under the Dawes Act of 02/08/1887 Indians could become citizens if they took up separate residence on allotments from (formerly) tribal landsSigns Revenue Act of 1924. The act reduced income taxes by roughly 25 percentThe French ratify the Mellon-Berringer agreement to settle its war debt to the United StatesExpresses his support for a bridge spanning the San Francisco Bay, connecting to OaklandThe National Bureau of Economic Research later concluded that the economic expansion peaked in August of 1929The Young Plan is finalized settling reparations owed by Germany for World War I (more than $26 Billion) and was the basis for creating the Bank for International SettlementsThe Dow Jones industrials dropped dramatically during the day the stock market crash began. The day was known as “Black Thursday.”In a News Conference, states that “the fundamental business of the country, that is, the production and distribution of commodities, is on a very sound and prosperous basis.”“Black Monday” in the stock market, stocks closed down nearly 13 percentArmistice Day Address. States his commitment to pursuing peace, and proposes that in time of war, food ships should receive the same protected status as hospital ships. “. . . starvation should be rejected among the weapons of warfare.”“Black Tuesday,” the down closed down another 12%In a Statement, the White House calls for Senate passage of tariff legislation, especially with flexibility for setting rates. The legislation is not sent to him until June 1930In a News Conference, praises the actions of the Federal Reserve in light of the crash, saying that “the ultimate result of it is a complete isolation of the stock market phenomenon from the general business phenomenon.”Telegrams to Governors Urging Stimulation of Public Works to Aid the EconomyFirst Annual State of the Union MessageSecretary of State Frank B. Kellogg receives the 1929 Nobel Peace Prize for his role in initiating the Briand-Kellogg Pact of 1928, prohibiting wars of aggressionSigns Revenue Act of 1928 (46 Stat 47) reducing tax rates on individuals and corporationsWhite House’s West Wing catches fire during Christmas party hosted by the President. On 12/31/1929 he sent a Letter to the DC Fire Department thanking them for their service. The West Wing reconstruction was not completed until April 1930. See Statement of 01/03/1930Statement on the eve of the London Naval Conference, an effort to limit the growth of naval capacity among the leading naval powersNominates former Republican Presidential candidate Charles Evans Hughes to be Chief Justice after former President William Howard Taft resigns; the President accepted Taft’s resignation on 02/04/1930. Hughes took the oath of office on 02/24/1930Statement on Unemployment and Business Conditions. “All the evidences indicate that the worst effects of the crash upon employment will have been passed during the next 60 days. . . “Construction begins on the Empire State Building, which will be the world’s first 100+ story building. The building was completed in a year and 45 daysIn a News Conference, announces his nomination of John J. Parker, a North Carolina Republican and chief judge of the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals, for a newly vacant Associate Justice seat on the Supreme CourtReleases a Statement outlining new public building projects authorized in an act signed on 03/31/1930 (46 Stat 136). These projects were spread over 200 cities and townsSends to Senate for ratification the London Naval Treaty (“Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament”) which had been signed on 04/22/1930. In a News Conference 05-06-1930 stresses that the Treaty is a non-partisan issueAddress to the Chamber of Commerce of the United States. “We have succeeded in maintaining confidence and courage. We have avoided monetary panic and credit stringency. Those dangers are behind us.”By a vote of 39 – 41, the Senate declines to confirm John J. Parker to the Supreme Court. (See above 03/21/1930.) He was opposed by organized labor for his anti-labor view and by the NAACP for having said “The participation of the Negro in politics is a source of evil and danger to both races and is not desired by the wise men in either race or by the Republican Party of North Carolina.” Parker was the only Court nominee rejected by the Senate between 1894 and 1968Vetoes Spanish War Veterans’ Pension Bill. Hoover was heavily criticized trying to prevent Spanish War soldiers, sailors, and nurses from receiving pensions or bonuses for fighting in the war. The veto was overridden a week later by CongressSigns Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act (“The Tariff Act of 1930,” 46 Stat 590), which, in 175 pages, raised tariffs on thousands of heavily imported goods. Released statement discussing his intent to sign on 06/16/1930). This tariff has been widely seen as contributing to the global depression by stimulating other countries to retaliateVetoes World War I Veterans’ Pension Bill. This veto was sustained in the HouseRemarks at Dedication of a Statue of James Buchanan (15th President of the U.S.). “Buchanan. . . occupied the Presidency at a moment when no human power could have stayed the inexorable advance of a great national conflict.”Signs Veterans Administration Act, (46 Stat 991) (see his Letter on the Act) which created the Veterans Administration to coordinate activities affecting war veteransSigns River and Harbor Act of 1930By Proclamation convenes the Senate for a Special session to address the London Naval Conference TreatyMessage to the Special Session of the Senate on the Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament. Argues that the Treaty does not harm the U.S. position and is “an important step in disarmament and in world peace.”Statement about the Establishment of the Veterans AdministrationMessage to the Senate Declining the Request for Confidential Documents Relating to the London Naval TreatyThe Senate consents to ratification of the London Naval Treaty by a vote of 57 to 9; The President signs the instrument of ratification on 07/22/1930Address to the American Bankers Association. “The depression is worldwide. Its causes and effects lie only partly in the United States.”Statement on Organization of Federal Activities for Employment announces a cabinet committee including a member of the Federal Reserve Board. “As a nation we must prevent hunger and cold to those of our people who are in honest difficulties.”In a News Conference announces that he is asking Colonel Arthur Woods to head up the newly created Organization for Unemployment Relief (also later referred to as the President’s Emergency Committee for Unemployment Relief.)In a Statement, rejects calls for a special session of Congress on unemployment, expressing confidence that “the spirit of voluntary service” will be adequate to the challengeMidterm Elections. The Republicans lost 52 seats in the House and eventually the Democrats emerged with a 1-seat House majority. In the Senate, the Republicans lost 8 seats but also ended up with a bare majorityThe Bank of Tennessee fails, and a cascade of closures across related banks (owned through the Caldwell and Co. holding company) creates a widespread banking panic. Primarily affected were banks outside the Federal Reserve systemRequests emergency appropriations for public works from CongressAddresses the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. This was the third in a series of conferences roughly a decade apart. There were 3,000 participants, and the final reports filled 32 volumes. This meeting led to the creation of the American Pediatric SocietySecond Annual State of the Union MessageTransmits to Senate protocols concerning the United States’ Adherence to the Permanent Court of International Justice. These were responsive to Senate requests made in 1926. Urges approval, apparently rejecting contrary advice from Republican members of the Senate Foreign Relations CommitteeFailure of the Bank of United States, fourth largest in New York City. This generated widespread newspaper coverage and stoked fears about financial institutionsIn testimony before the Senate Appropriations Committee, the chair of the President’s Emergency Committee for Employment expresses confidence that planned construction programs would be adequate to handle the situationRefuses Senate request to return confirmations of three new members of Federal Power CommissionSends Special Message to Congress opposing repeal of 18th Amendment prohibiting manufacture, sale, and transport of intoxicating liquorsSigns Employment Stabilization Act of 1931, (46 Stat 1084) which emphasized public works in addressing unemployment. Created a Federal Employment Stabilization BoardLetter to Chairman of Senate Finance Committee about Emergency Adjusted Compensation Bill (“Bonus Bill”). The additional spending would be large (around $1 Billion), and much of that would go to veterans who “are not in distress.”Vetoes Veterans’ Emergency Adjusted Compensation Bill (known as the “Bonus Bill”). Aid should focus on veterans in need, not all veterans. “We cannot further the restoration of prosperity by borrowing from some of our people, pledging the credit of all of the people, to loan to some of our people who are not in need of the money.” The bill allowed veterans to obtain advance payments of “bonus certificates” dating from 1924Statement following Congressional override of his veto of the “Bonus Bill,” or Emergency Adjusted Compensation ActVetoes Muscle Shoals Joint Resolution. “I am firmly opposed to the Government entering into any business the major purpose of which is competition with our citizens.” The Senate sustains the vetoSigns Act (46 Stat 1508) making the Star Spangled Banner the national anthem of the United States of AmericaContracts are awarded by Bureau of Reclamation for construction of the Boulder Dam—about 35 miles south-east of Las Vegas. Hoover had been a leader in planning the dam in 1922 as Secretary of Commerce. It was officially named the Hoover Dam in 1947Travel to Porto [sic] Rico and the Virgin Islands—Hoover’s only Presidential travel outside the continental U.S.Nine Black young men (who come to be known as the “Scottsboro Boys”) were arrested for the alleged rape of two white women. They were tried in Scottsboro, AL, and eight were convicted and sentenced to death on 04/09/1931. They had never met or discussed the case with their court-appointed attorneysProposes a moratorium on intergovernmental debts—war reparations and debtsIn a Statement, announces the formation of the President’s Organization on Unemployment Relief (supplanting the President’s Emergency Committee for Employment)Mukden (Shenyang) Incident. In this northeastern Chinese city, an explosion damages a Japanese-owned railroad tracks. Subsequently Japanese military seized the province and the area was declared to be a new autonomous state, Manchukuo. Both China and Japan had signed the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact (see 07/24/29) , but the League of Nations was unable to actGreat Britain leaves the gold standard. Fears that the US would follow suit provokes a flight from dollars to gold and provoked concern about bank liquidity and further panic withdrawals from banksStatement on Financial and Economic Problems. Following a meeting with members of Congress on 10/06/1931, outlines a multi-part program of action involving banks and the Federal Reserve, and the creation of a finance corporationAround 2000 “Hunger Marchers” (New York Times) from around the country, supported by the Communist Party, are prevented by police armed with machine guns from entering the Capitol and the White House. They seek to deliver a petition for unemployment insurance. This was timed to coincide with the opening of the Congressional SessionThird Annual State of the Union MessageMessage to Congress on United States Foreign Relations. As promised in the State of the Union Message, this considers foreign relations questions in more detail. Repeats support for Permanent Court of International Justice. On 12/16/1931 the Foreign Relations Committee further postponed action on the Court proposal. Expresses deep concern over the situation in ManchuriaSigns Moratorium of War Reparations and War Debts, which authorized the postponement of war repayments owed to the United States from World War ISpecial Message to the Congress on the Economic Recovery Program. Urges prompt action on his earlier requests. “We can and must replace the unjustifiable fear in the country by confidence.”Secretary of State Henry Stimson declared a “doctrine” that the US would not recognize any treaty or agreement that violated US rights or international agreements the US subscribed to. This statement did not affect Japanese behavior in ManchuriaStatement on Appointments to the United States Delegation to the General Disarmament Conference in GenevaSigns Reconstruction Finance Corporation Act, (47 Stat 5) establishing a government corporation that provided emergency financing for financial institutions. This was a direct response to the banking instability and runs on gold. The RFC had authority to lend to banks, other financial institutions, and railroads. This was modeled on the World War I “War Finance Corporation.”Signs act amending Federal Farm Loan ActStatement on the Hoarding of Currency. “There is now a patriotic opportunity for our citizens unitedly to join in this campaign against depression.”Signs Banking Act of 1932, amending the Federal Reserve Act—also known as the Glass-Steagall Act--(47 Stat 56). This act expended the range of assets for which the Federal Reserve Banks could provide loans. It also allowed Federal Reserve notes (i.e. paper money) to be backed by government securities in addition to gold and commercial paper. Thus the Federal Reserve could purchase government debtWisconsin Governor signs into law the first compulsory US unemployment insurance law. This example is influential in future New Deal legislationThe 20-month old child of aviation pioneer and hero Charles Lindbergh is kidnapped from his home. The child’s body was found some weeks later. A direct result of issues relating to investigating the crime across state lines, the Federal Kidnapping Act (47 Stat 326) was passed and signed into law on 06/22/193220Th Amendment submitted to the states after Congressional approval. The Amendment would shorten the “lame duck” period between a Presidential Election and the start of the next Presidential term and advance the starting date of the congressional session. Also addresses succession in case of death of President-electSigns the Anti-Injunction Act, (“The Norris-LaGuardia Act) (47 Stat 70) limiting the jurisdictions of courts to issue injunctions in labor disputesSpecial Message to Congress proposing a National Economy Program. Urges significant reductions in Federal government expenditures and the creation of a special joint Legislative/Executive Committee to frame for action a complete national program of economy. Congress did not act on this requestWhite House Statement on the Furlough Plan for Government Employees. Proposes legislation for a mandatory half-day unpaid furlough for government employees to result in a five-day work week. This proposal was adopted in legislation signed 06/30/1932Signs Interior Department Appropriations Act (47 Stat 91). Urges authorization for limited flexible transfer of funds between departmentsAmelia Earhart undertakes the first Trans-Atlantic solo flight by a woman landing in Northern Ireland on 05/21/1932Signs a Congressional Joint Resolution ( 47 Stat 158) designating the official spelling to be Puerto Rico replacing Porto RicoBonus Army (aka “Bonus Expeditionary Force”) begins to arrive in Washington DC. The arrival coincided with Memorial Day observancesSigns Revenue Act of 1932, (47 Stat 169) which increased corporate and income taxes, as well as doubling estate taxesRenomination by Republican Party Convention on first ballot of Herbert Hoover for President and Charles Curtis as Vice President. Hoover sends telegram of acceptance. Makes an acceptance speech on 08/11/1932Statement on Signing Economy Act, (47 Stat 399) a portion of a multipart Act dealing with several topics. The Economy Act (Part II of the legislation) was an economy measure requiring unpaid furloughs for many officialsFranklin D. Roosevelt Accepts the Democratic Party nomination for President in person at the Convention in ChicagoThe Dow Jones Industrials Average Index ended its decline at $41.22, after having peaked at $318.17 on 09/03/1929, a decline of 87 percentSigns Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Deep Waterway TreatySigns Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Deep Waterway TreatyRepublican Party nominates Coolidge as presidential candidate for the 1924 ElectionCalvin Coolidge Jr., the second son of President Coolidge, age 16, dies due to an infection in his bloodstream arising from a blister on his foot. This was the first child of a sitting President to die since the death of Lincoln’s sonVery early in the morning, John W. Davis wins the Democratic nomination for president on the 104th ballotJohn W. Davis Speech Accepting Democratic Presidential NominationFirst audiovisual recording of a US President shows Coolidge reading an excerpt from his 08/14/1924 nomination acceptance addressAddress Accepting the Republican Presidential NominationGermany agrees to the terms of the “Dawes Plan” (named after the US financier who chaired the committee of experts considering the plan for German Reparations after World War I). The plan had been presented to the Reparations Commission on April 9, 1924American “Forces of Occupation” leave the Dominican Republic following the installation of a “constitutional president.”In Address to Holy Name Society, Washington, D.C., discusses the meaning of liberty and American values. “Socialism and communism cannot be reconciled with the principles which our institutions represent.”Radio Address from the White House on the Duties of Citizenship. “The right to vote is conferred upon our citizens not only that they may exercise it for their own benefit, but in order that they may exercise it also for the benefit of others.”Election Day. Calvin Coolidge defeats Democratic Candidate John W. Davis, winning the Electoral College by 71.9% and the popular vote by 54%Second Annual State of the Union MessageSigns Air Mail Act. (43 Stat 805) First major legislation affecting the emergent aviation industry. The act authorized the Postmaster General to contract corporations to transport air mail and set air mail ratesInaugural AddressSenate rejects the nomination of Charles Warren as Attorney General. It was the first time in nearly 60 years that the Senate rejected a presidential cabinet nominationIn another audio-visual first, makes film recording of a speech that is then presented on 04/21/1925 to the Friars Club and the general publicBy Radio Addresses the Opening of the Women’s World Fair in ChicagoBy Executive Order waives or reduces application and visa fees for non-immigrantsNegro, Catholic, and Jewish organizations petition Coolidge to halt a march and rally planned by the Ku Klux Klan for Washington DC in August. Coolidge is reported to oppose the Klan gathering but to believe he has no authority to stop the paradeTrial began of John T. Scopes, accused of violating Tennessee law by teaching evolution—contradicting the teachings of the Bible. The prosecution was led by William Jennings Bryan and the defense by prominent defense lawyer Clarence Darrow. Scopes was convicted and fined $100. On 01/17/1927 the State Supreme Court ruled that the statute was constitutional but the fine exceeded the Judge’s discretion. The US Supreme Court does not rule on the issues in this case until 1968Thousands, possibly as many as 40,000 members of the Ku Klux Klan, marching in full regalia, parade on Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C. Special trains had carried Klan members from all over the countryAddress Before the Annual Council of the Congregational Churches, Washington, D.C. “The claim to the right to freedom, the claim to the right to equality, with the resultant right to self-government – the rule of the people – have no foundation other than the common brotherhood of man derived from the common fatherhood of God.”General Emiliano Chamorro Vargas begins insurgent operations in Managua, Nicaragua. The US representative informed Chamorro that the U.S. would not recognize any government that assumed power by forceThird Annual State of the Union MessageIn a Special Message urges Congress to encourage aeronautics and the development of commercial aviationSenate Adopts a Resolution on the World Court with 5 conditions to be satisfied. In an Address on 01/30/1926, Coolidge endorses the reservations. He speaks on the benefits of the World Court in a News Conference on 02/02/1926Signs Revenue Act of 1926, which reduced federal income taxesIssues Executive Order authorizing employment of State and Local Officers as Prohibition AgentsSigns Air Commerce Act, which assigned the Department of Commerce responsibility for the regulation of commercial aviationSigns Public Buildings Act. (Eliot-Fernald Act) The act funded the construction of several federal buildings across the nation including the Federal Triangle in Washington DCSigns act creating the United States Army Air CorpsSigns act which increased pensions for Mexican and Civil War veteransUS Marines Land at Bluefields, Nicaragua. The US had warned on 08/27/1926 that it would “take such measures as it may deem necessary” for the protection of American lives and propertyProclamation—Exportation of Arms or Munitions of War to Nicaragua UnlawfulIn Myers v. United States the Supreme Court led by former President William Howard Taft, decides 6-3 that the President has the right to remove cabinet members. The power of removal is an inherent part of the President’s executive powerMidterm elections. The Republican party lost nine seats in the House and six in the Senate, but retained majorities in bothAddress at the Dedication of the Liberty Memorial at Kansas City, MO. The venue is one of the major World War I memorial sitesFourth Annual State of the Union MessageIn a News Conference, rejects the notion that the US is “taking sides” in the Nicaraguan revolutionSends message to Congress stating belief that American intervention in Nicaragua is justified. Coolidge argued that controlling the revolution in Nicaragua was necessary to protect American business interests. Coolidge also argued that the Mexican government was attempting to form a regime in Nicaragua that would be hostile to the United States governmentIn a case growing out of the Teapot Dome Scandal during the Harding Administration, the Supreme Court decides in McGrain v. Daugherty that by presumption congressional investigations have a legislative purposeVetoes Shoshone Indian Bill. Objects to requiring the government to assume an obligation for interest payments dating from ancient claims. The veto was unchallengedSpecial Message to Congress on Naval Armament Limitation Negotiations. Will urge treaty partners to expand the classes of vessels covered by the Washington Naval treatyUS recognizes Canada as a state independent of the United Kingdom with autonomous control over its foreign relationsAddress to a Joint Session of Congress in Anticipation of Celebration of the Two Hundredth Anniversary, in 1932, of the Birth of George Washington. Apart from his 1923 State of the Union Addresses, this is Coolidge’s only address to a Joint Session of CongressSigns Radio Control Act, which established the Federal Radio Commission to regulate radio transmissionsSigns National Bank Consolidation Act, which allowed national banks to establish branchesSigns act which grants U.S. Citizenship to certain inhabitants of the Virgin IslandsSigns Naval Appropriation Act, which funded the construction of multiple cruiser shipsSigns Amended Organic Act of Puerto Rico, (44 Stat 1418) which established a path to Puerto Rican citizenship for United States citizensIn Nixon v. Herndon, Supreme Court holds a Texas law prohibiting blacks from voting in the Democratic Primary is unconstitutional under the 14th AmendmentStarting about this date, very heavy rains in the lower Mississippi valley prepared the way for record flooding in the next monthUsing authority granted in the Organic Law of the Philippine Islands, Vetoes Act of Legislature of Philippines. Coolidge stated that he believed that many Filipinos wanted independence yet still needed the protection of the American governmentOn this day, more than 15” of rain fell on New Orleans, LA, in 18 hours. To save the city in the face of vast flooding, levees were dynamited to flood less densely populated areas. This was the “Great Mississippi Flood of 1927.”Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover is appointed to head a Special Presidential Cabinet Committee to deal with the Mississippi flooding disaster. Government emergency response actions involved action by the Interstate Commerce Commission, Navy Department, and the Veterans Bureau. This was an important precedent in Federal government disaster responseCharles Lindbergh completes the first solo, nonstop flight from New York to Paris. Coolidge comments in a News Conference on 05/24/1927With his family, takes an extended vacation in the Black Hills of South DakotaAnnounces he will not run for another presidential term. “. . . dramatically and unexpectedly, and without consultation with friends, issued the following statement to correspondents here: ‘I do not choose to run for President in nineteen twenty-eight.’”Address at the Opening of Work on Mount Rushmore in Black Hills, SD. Comments at the laying of the cornerstone characterizing the four presidents to be depicted. “We cannot hold our admiration for the historic figures which we shall see here without growing strong in our determination to perpetuate the institutions which their lives revealed and established.”Address at the Annual Meeting of the American Red Cross. One of the few instances in which Coolidge spoke about the Mississippi flooding and the government responseIn Mammoth Oil v. United States, the Supreme Court rules that the contracts provided to Mammoth Oil by Harding Interior Secretary Albert Fall “were procured. . .through fraud. . .” (see Harding Timeline 04/07/1922)Fifth Annual State of the Union MessageDelivers opening address at Pan-American Conference in Havana, Cuba. Participants in the conference express rejection of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe DoctrineDelivers opening address at the dedication of National Press Club Building, Washington D.C.Nominates Genevieve R. Cline, first woman to serve on the federal judiciary on the United States Customs Court. She is confirmed by the Senate on 05/25/1928 and sworn in on 06/06/1928Signs Flood Control Act (45 Stat 534) authorizing the Army Corps of Engineers to design projects to control Mississippi River floodingVetoes two bills relating to the Post Office, one providing allowances for “postmasters of the fourth class” and another providing a pay differential for night work. In both instances he argued the expenses were unjustified. Both were overriddenSigns Merchant Marine ActVetoes bill providing retirement for “emergency officers” of the World War. Objects that the bill will violate a principle of compensating injured soldiers based on their disability, not on their rank. The veto is overridden 05/24/1928Signs Revenue Act of 1928. (45 Stat 791) The act reduced Federal income taxes down to a maximum of 12%Democrats Nominate Alfred E. Smith for President. He formally accepts in an address on 08/22/1928The U.S. signs a treaty regulating tariff relations with the Chinese Nationalist Government, thereby recognizing the Chinese governmentStatement on (and text of) the Kellogg-Briand Pact is signed by the United States and other nations. The treaty was described as a “frank renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy.”“Vermont is a State I Love” speech in Bennington, VTElection Day. Herbert Hoover defeats Democrat Alfred E. Smith, winning 83.6% of the Electoral College and 58.2% of the popular voteSixth and final State of the Union MessageSigns “Swing-Johnson” bill authorizing the Boulder Canyon Project calling for construction of a dam on the Colorado River. This project had been considered by Congress for nearly seven yearsFinal public address at commencement ceremonies at George Washington UniversitySigns Amended Prohibition Enforcement Act. The act increased penalties for offenders of Federal prohibition laws and took effect immediatelyHerbert Hoover Inaugural AddressBy Executive Order directs that Internal Revenue Service refunds or credits in excess of $20,000 shall be open to public inspectionBy Proclamation, declares a new national monument in Utah: Arches National MonumentMessage to the Special Session of Congress on Farm Relief and the TariffLetter to Senator McNary, with attachments from the Secretaries of Treasury and Agriculture critiquing a plan for providing export subsidies to farmersAddress to the Associated Press. Expresses concern for lawlessness in the United States and points out that the rates of murder, robbery, and burglary in the US greatly exceed that in Great BritainAn exhibit, American Negro Artists opens on the ground floor of the Smithsonian’s US National Museum (later called the “Arts and Industries Building.”). This exhibit was sponsored by the Harmon FoundationThe Supreme Court rules unanimously in The Pocket Veto Case that the House to which a veto would ordinarily be returned must be in session to receive and act upon a veto. Thus the pocket veto is constitutionalIn Memorial Day Address, warns that “Despite the declarations of the Kellogg Pact, every important country has since the signing of that agreement been engaged in strengthening its naval arm.”In a Statement, criticizes the Senate’s vote to reject the Conference Committee Report on the farm relief billSigns Agricultural Marketing Act, (46 Stat 11) which provides aid to the agricultural industry and forms the Federal Farm Board. Calls it “the most important measure ever passed by Congress in aid of a single industry.”Signs Act reforming the conduct of the census and providing for an apportionment among the states of the number of Representatives totaling to "the then existing number of Representatives" (in 1930; 46 Stat 21). The reporting of the total population and the number of Representatives per state is assigned to the PresidentIn a Statement, announces the US will suspend construction of three naval cruisers in the interest of promoting international naval limitsStatement on Signing a Proclamation on the Colorado River Compact. The most extensive interstate compact executed to date, addresses water rights in the Colorado basinRemarks upon proclaiming that the Kellogg-Briand Pact had taken effect. In this pact, signed in Paris, August 27, 1928, fifteen nations declared war to be illegal and agreed to settle disputes peacefullyThe Geneva Convention is signed in Switzerland, codifying expectations for humane treatment of prisoners of war; specifies that prisoners under questioning only need give name, rank, and serial numberDelivers the Final Radio Speech of his 1936 Campaign claiming that whoever is elected “will become the President of all the people.”Election Day. Roosevelt defeats Alfred Landon with 60.8% of the popular vote and 98.5% of the electoral voteGermany and Japan sign the Anti-Comintern Pact signifying an agreement between the two powers to keep each other informed on communist activitiesA Rockville, MD teacher, William B. Gibbs, represented by the NAACP and Thurgood Marshall, files suit (Gibbs v. Broome) against Montgomery County representing black teachers who were paid far less than equally qualified white teachers. The County settled the case in 1937, but it was widely viewed as a model of using litigation for racial equalityAnnual State of the Union MessageSecond Inaugural AddressAnnounces Proclamation 2222 in which the Red Cross administers aid for disastrous floods in Mississippi and OhioIn a message to Congress, Roosevelt recommends a “comprehensive program to reorganize the administrative machinery” of the Supreme Court. Most notably, Roosevelt recommends adding six new justices to the Supreme Court. This becomes known as a proposal for “Court Packing.”During one of his Fireside Chats Roosevelt responds to criticism about his Supreme Court restructuring plan. He cites conservative judges who have blocked important New Deal programs as one of his reasons for his planAppoints William H. Hastie to the District Court of the Virgin Islands making him the first African American federal judgeThe Supreme Court rules that the establishment of minimum wage laws for women is constitutional by a 5-4 vote in West Coast Hotel Company v. ParrishCalls for the Civilian Conservation Corps to be made into a permanent agencyThe Supreme Court rules that companies cannot discriminate against unionized employees by a 5-4 vote in National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. Additionally, the Supreme Court argued that the Commerce Clause allowed Congress to use the National Labor Relations Act to protect unionized laborersAnnounces Proclamation 2236 in which he announces the signing of “Cash and carry law,” an extension of the Neutrality Act. Sale of munitions to belligerents is banned, specifically Spain, and belligerents must pay for non-military goods in cash, as well as being able to carry them with their own shipsVetoes bill to retain subsidized interest rates on Federal land-bank loans. The veto is overridden by the House 07/13/1937 and by the Senate 07/22/1937Writes to Congress about the importance of low-interest loans for farmers who are struggling. Signs the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act creating the Farmers Home Corporation (50 Stat 522) on 07/22/1937The Senate votes down President Roosevelt’s Judicial Procedures Reform BillSigns National Housing Act which provides financial assistance to state and local governments to create public housingRecommends legislation that will drive down the cost of private housing and make owning or renting a house more feasible for the average citizenItaly joins Germany and Japan in signing the Anti-Comintern PactIssues a Memorandum on the bombing of the S.S. Panay. Japanese forces attack US naval craft Panay on China’s Yangtze River, despite America’s pledge of neutrality in the war between China and JapanState of the Union AddressSigns second Agricultural Adjustment Act establishing the Federal Crop Insurance Agency to stabilize farmer’s incomes and the agricultural marketGermany annexes Austria—the AnschlussLetter on the Tax Bill. To the Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee arguing for progressive taxation of capital gains and a tax on undistributed profits. Both issues were central to the Revenue Act of 1938The Supreme Court rules 7-2 in Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins that in cases with diversity jurisdiction, courts need to apply substantive state law and federal law unless these two laws contradict each otherThe conference report on the Revenue Act of 1938 was passed in the House 242-89 (greater than 2/3). Two days earlier it had passed the Senate by voice voteThe House of Representatives creates the House Un-American Activities Committee to investigate alleged citizen disloyaltySigns Emergency Relief and Construction Act of 1932 (47 Stat 709). The bill provided for federal relief loans to the states and new public works construction. The legislation has been characterized as “the first large-scale federal public welfare program in American History.”Statement on Signing Federal Home Loan Bank Act (47 Stat 725). The act established the Federal Home Loan Bank Board, which helped lower the cost of home ownership loansOrders Bonus Army to be Dispersed. Under leadership of General Douglas MacArthur, the Bonus Army is dispersed by force. See also his 07/29/1932 Letter to the Commissioners of the District of Columbia about Army assistance provided when District police “were overwhelmed by an organized attack by several thousand men.” The President did not invoke the Insurrection Act, and did not in fact order MacArthur to clear the encamped veteransAddress Accepting the Republican Presidential Nomination. This formal response to his renomination was delivered to a large audience in Constitution Hall and nationally broadcast by radioAddress to the Conference of the Federal Reserve District Banking and Industrial Committees, meeting at the Commerce Department 08/26/1932 – 08/28/1932. Urges coordination with existing government programs and a better distribution of creditStatement on the Justice Department Investigation of the Bonus Army. Most of those who came to Washington were “honest, law-abiding men,” but there were many “criminal, Communist, and nonveteran elements amongst the marchers.”White House Statement on Equality of Opportunity in Employment. “. . . it is the wish of the administration that employment shall be given to the negro worker on the same basis as it is given to every other American.”In Powell v. Alabama, (decided together with Patterson v. Alabama and Weems v. Alabama) the Supreme Court votes 7-2 that the trial of the Scottsboro Boys violated their 14th Amendment right to due processElection Day. President Hoover is defeated in his bid for reelection by Democratic nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt wins 88.9% of the Electoral College and 57.4% of the popular vote. Sends Message of Congratulation to RooseveltWhite House Statement on the Federal Budget: “The administration is determined to present a balanced budget.”Fourth Annual State of the Union MessageBy Proclamation creates the Grand Canyon National Monument south of the Grand Canyon National ParkVetoes Bill granting independence to the Philippine Islands. The act passes as the veto is overridden on 01/17/1933 by a two-thirds majority vote in CongressVetoes Deficiency Appropriation Bill, stating that it is unconstitutional for legislation to provide individual tax refunds. The veto was sustained20th Amendment Declared to be Adopted. This changes the date a President takes office and addresses the circumstances of the death of a President electRatification process begins for 21st Amendment. The 21st Amendment repealed the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the production and sale of alcoholSigns Resolution which authorized the Comptroller of Currency to exercise authority over national banks equal to the powers of State banking regulatorsHolds final news conference giving farewell to the nationFranklin Delano Roosevelt Inaugural AddressIssues Proclamation 2039, calling for a national “bank holiday" and urges the US to close all banks. Three days later, Congress passes and Roosevelt signs the Emergency Banking Act (48 Stat 1) in responseDelivers his first presidential Fireside Chat on national radio. Roosevelt justifies his decision to temporarily close all banks. He argues that he prevented withdrawals by panicked investors. Lastly, reveals that banks would reopen the next dayMessage to Congress urging “immediate modification” of the Volstead ActSigns the Economy Act which reduced the salaries of various federal workers and limited payments made to veterans. This bill cut federal spending by 243 million dollarsSigns the Cullen-Harrison Act, (48 Stat 16) amending the Volstead Act, to permit sale of low-alcohol beer and wineSigns Unemployment Relief Act (48 stat 22) providing for performing of “useful public works” including the Civilian Conservation Corps (a public work relief program). “. . .no discrimination shall be made on account of race, color, or creed. . . “Signs Executive Order 6101, creating the Civilian Conservation Corps, a public work program focused on improving public landsSigns Executive Order 6102, removing gold from circulation (prohibits “hoarding” of gold; effectively nationalizing gold)Signs the Agricultural Adjustment Act which increased agricultural prices by reducing any surpluses. As a result, the US government paid for livestock and paid farmers not to plant on large parts of their landSigns Federal Emergency Relief Act, (48 Stat 31) which created a federal relief program that created new jobs for unemployed workers. This program also distributed grants to local and state governments that facilitated these programsSigns the Tennessee Valley Authority Act (48 Stat 58) providing electricity, economic development, and other resources to the Tennessee Valley region which was specifically affected by the Great Depression. Roosevelt also issues a signing statementSigns the Federal Securities Act (48 Stat 74) which regulated the sale of securitiesSigns a Joint Resolution “to assure uniform value to the coins and currencies of the United States,” suspending obligations to pay in gold; US officially leaves the Gold StandardSigns Executive Order 6102 “prohibit[ing] the hoarding of gold coin, gold bullion, and gold certificates.”By Executive Order 6166, in a sweeping order reorganizing the executive branch, among other things consolidates administration of national monuments, reservations, national cemeteries sites to the National Parks ServiceThe London Economic Conference meets to discuss the economic depression. Roosevelt criticizes the Conference for its “artificial and temporary experiment affecting the monetary exchange of a few Nations only.”Signs Home Owners’ Loan Act of 1933, creating the Home Owners Loan Corporation to support mortgage finance and issues a Signing Statement urging mortgage lenders to refrain from foreclosuresSigns several important acts on final day of “Hundred Days:” The National Industrial Recovery Act, (48 Stat 195) the Banking Act of 1933 (48 Stat 162) the Farm Credit Act (48 Stat 257) and The Emergency Railroad Transportation Act (48 Stat 211). Issues executive orders on the NRA and Public Works AdministrationEstablishes the National Labor Board granting organized labor the right to bargain collectivelyExhibition of Work by Negro Artists at the National Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, sponsored by the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History. The exhibit was notable in part for the positive reviews it received in the Washington PostSigns Executive Order 6420B which establishes the Civil Works Administration. This administration would create construction jobs that focused on improving buildings and bridgesAnnounces the US will “establish normal diplomatic relations with the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and to exchange ambassadors.”The 21st Amendment is ratified and repeals the 18th amendment of the constitution. Prohibition ends in the United StatesIn an Address before the Woodrow Wilson Foundation, underscores Wilson’s commitment to peaceful international cooperation and hails the successes in the Montevideo conferenceFirst State of the Union AddressIn a message to Congress Roosevelt claims that authority “vests in the Government of a Nation the title to [collect] possession of all monetary gold within its boundaries.” He also urged that the Secretary of Treasury be solely responsible for dealing with foreign exchangesSigns Gold Reserve Act, implementing government ownership of monetary gold; assigns the Treasury Secretary responsibility for trading in gold; creates a foreign exchange stabilization fundIssues Proclamation 2072 fixing the weight of a gold dollar at 15 5/21 grains nine-tenths fine, a reduction from the previous 25.8 grains of gold nine-tenths fineSigns Executive Order 6581, establishing the Import/Export Bank. Roosevelt’s intention was “to aid in financing and to facilitate exports and imports… between the United States and other Nations.”Delivers a message to Congress recommending the creation of the Securities Exchange Commission. Roosevelt suggests that it should be “national policy to restrict, as far as possible, the use of these exchanges for purely speculative operations.”White House Statement on Relief for the Unemployed. “Direct relief. . . is not an adequate way of meeting the needs of able-bodied workers.”By Executive Order, pursuant to authority granted in the National Recovery Act, creates the Office of Special Adviser to the President on Foreign TradeSigns the Tydings-McDuffie Act. This guaranteed that the Philippines, then an American Colony, would be able to become an independent country after ten yearsSigns the Home Owners’ Loan Act of 1933 Amendments (48 Stat 643), guaranteeing bonds of the Home Owner’s Loan CorporationThe New York Times reports “thick clouds of smoky dust born on winds of gale force” swept the upper mid-west as far as Central OhioThe White House issues a statement on drought relief. President Roosevelt indicates that Congress does not need to grant him new powers to enable him or his federal agencies to cope with ongoing droughtsSigns Confederate Veterans’ encampment equipment Act, (48 Stat 803) authorizing the Secretary of War to provide equipment for the June 1934 encampment of Confederate Veterans at Chattanooga, TNUnited States and Cuba sign “Treaty of Relations” and Roosevelt requests Congressional ratification. This releases Cuba from the Platt Amendment dating from 1903—US unilateral right to armed intervention in Cuban affairsSigns the Securities Exchange Act. (48 Stat 881) This created the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) for regulation, registration, and monitorization of different brokerage firms and transfer agencies. The commission had been recommended in a Message on 02/09/1934Signs the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act, (48 Stat 943) allowing the President to negotiate with other nations to secure mutually beneficial trade agreementsSigns the Wheeler-Howard Act (aka Indian Reorganization Act) (48 stat 984) promoting tribal autonomy and economic development and reversing the emphasis on assimilation. Presidential statement endorsing the Wheeler-Howard Bill had been released on 04/28/1934Signs The Communications Act of 1933 (48 Stat 1064) establishing the Federal Communications Commission and signs "An Act to establish a National Archives (48 Stat 1122) of the United States Government.”Signs Federal Credit Union System Act (48 Stat 1216) creating credit unions among “groups having a common bond of occupation, or association” or “within a well-defined neighborhood.”Statement on Presidential Practice of Explaining Vetoes of Bills. States he will provide a statement for failing to sign bills when they are “pocket-vetoed.”Signs National Housing Act, (48 Stat 1246) establishing Federal Housing AdministrationAnnounces Proclamation 2089 advocating for the ban of exportation of arms and munitions to CubaWhite House Statement on the Establishment of the National Resources BoardInformal visits to Haiti, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands Colombia, PanamaTravel in the Western US to Bonneville Dam, Grand Coulee Dam, Glacier National Park, Havre (MT), Fort Peck Dam, Devils Lake (ND), Rochester (MN) and Green Bay (WI)The US Senate Munitions Committee begins what came to be known as the Nye Hearings investigating whether munitions manufacturers (“merchants of death”)had unduly influenced US policy concerning entering World War ISigns Executive Order 6859 creating the National Industrial Recovery BoardMidterm Elections: Democrats gain 9 seats in both the House and SenateJapan formally “denounced” the Washington Naval Treaty of 02/06/1922, objecting to the fact that the treaty limited Japan’s navy relative to that of the U.S. and BritainSecond State of the Union AddressThe Senate seeks to avoid international entanglements and rejects participation in the World Court in a 52-36 voteAdolf Hitler orders the enlistment of all able-bodied men aged 19 years and older. This directly violated the Versailles Treaty which ordered Germany to have less than 100,000 military soldiersSigns the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act authorizing $5 billion toward FDR’s New Deal programs. The Works Progress Administration is a notable federal agency created by this ActSigns "An Act for the protection of land resources against soil erosion" (49 Stat 163) directing the Secretary of Agriculture to establish the Soil Conservation Service. This is in response to the “Black Sunday” Dust Storm-- the worst of the dust bowl era that occurred April 4, 1935Signs Executive Order 7034 which established the Works Progress Administration. This program sought to employ millions of Americans and would hire them to carry out public works projectsSigns Executive Order 7037 which established the Rural Electrification Administration. This program would provide federal loans to people in isolated rural areas to install electrical distribution systemsAddresses a Joint Session of Congress to state his reasons for vetoing a bill calling for immediate payment of adjusted service certificates. The veto was overridden in the house (05/22/1935) but sustained in the Senate (05/23/1935)The Supreme Court rules the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 is unconstitutional by a 9-0 vote in Schechter Poultry Co. vs United StatesSigns the National Labor Relations Act (also known as the Wagner Act). This guarantees the right of employees to participate in unions, participate in collective bargaining, and organize strikesSigns the Social Security Act, creating a financial safety net for elderly and unemployed Americans. Financial benefits were connected to lifetime payroll tax contributions by each personSigns the Public Utility Holding Company Act, allowing the SEC to regulate and break up electric utility companiesSigns the Revenue Act of 1935, introducing a “wealth tax” which taxed up to 75% of incomes over 1 million dollarsStatement on signing Neutrality Act, forbidding the shipment of arms and ammunition to belligerents during a state of warSenator Huey P. Long is assassinated in Louisiana. His death prevents a possible presidential campaign against Roosevelt in 1936. Roosevelt denounces the murder of Senator Long and describes “the spirit of violence [as] un-AmericanGermany establishes Nuremberg Laws, which were antisemitic and racist laws that discriminated against Jewish peopleWith the intention of expanding its territory, Italy invades EthiopiaAnnual State of the Union MessageThe Supreme Court rules that the Agricultural Adjustment Act is unconstitutional by a 7-2 vote in US v Butler. The court holds that this area of regulation is reserved to the states by 10th AmendmentVetoes the Adjustment Compensation Act, “An act to provide for the immediate payment of World War adjusted service certificates. . .” The House overrode this veto on 01/24/1936 and the Senate on 01/27/1936, denoting the first veto override of FDR’s time in officeThe Supreme Court rules that the Tennessee Valley Authority is Constitutional and did not violate the rights of shareholders in private Tennessee power companies by an 8-1 vote in in Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley AuthorityAdolf Hitler orders his troops to relocate into the demilitarized Rhineland. By doing so, Hitler violates the Treaty of VersaillesItalian troops secure dominance in Addis Abba, Ethiopia, and Emperor Haile Selassie flees. The expectation is that Italy will annex EthiopiaKansas Governor Alfred M. Landon accepts the nomination for the presidency by the Republican Party convention meeting in Cleveland, OHSigns Robinson-Patman law—an amendment to the 1914 Clayton Antitrust Act. This new amendment was intended to prevent price discrimination and made it illegal for distributors to change their prices to different retailersRevokes previous proclamations that recommended sanctions against actors involved in the war between Italy and EthiopiaAccepts re-nomination for President by the Democratic Party meeting in PhiladelphiaMilitary insurrection in Spain instigates the Spanish Civil War which continues until mid-1939The Summer Olympics are held in Berlin, Germany. African American sprinter Jesse Owens won four gold medals—more than any American athlete up to that timeHitler and Mussolini sign a series of protocols that result in the formation of a coalition called the Rome-Berlin AxisAddress at Arthurdale, West Virginia. Addressing the Revenue Act that had been presented for his approval, Roosevelt said he would neither approve nor veto the bill. Parts he approved of, parts he disliked: “. . .this new tax bill automatically will become law; but it will become law without my signature or my approval.”Revenue Act of 1938, (52 Stat 447) became law without the President’s approval or veto (very unusual; see 52 Stat 584); eliminating a controversial provision for taxes on undistributed corporate profitsSigns Bankruptcy Act of 1938 (The Chandler Act; 52 Stat 840) substantially revising the Bankruptcy Act of 1898, making voluntary access more attractive to debtors and strengthening creditors’ rights in corporate reorganizationsSigns Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 (52 Stat 973) creating a Civil Aeronautics Authority to promote air transport and an Air Safety Board—perhaps the most important element of the act. Mentioned in a Fireside ChatIn Fireside Chat, discusses his court reform proposals of 1937 which he says “have been substantially attained.” Notes that “The attitude of the supreme Court toward constitutional questions is entirely changed.”Signs the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 (52 Stat 1040) promoted food standards to guide consumer choiceSigns the Fair Labor Standards Act (“Wages and Hours Bill”) which banned child labor, raised the minimum hourly wage, and set the maximum workweek hours. Mentioned in a Fireside ChatThe Evian Conference on Jewish Refugees is held in France. No European country accepts Jew refugees who fled persecution. The United States will take only 27,370Germany forces all Jews over 15-years old to wear identity cardsMussolini announces that Italy would support Germany in its conflict with CzechoslovakiaRoosevelt writes directly to Chancellor Hitler to urge peace between Germany and CzechoslovakiaMunich Agreement: German, Italian, British and French leaders allow Germany to annex Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. Subsequently this is condemned as “appeasement” and is an enduring foreign policy metaphorWinston Churchill denounces the Munich Agreement as a failure. He also calls out to the United States and the rest of Western Europe to prepare for war against HitlerPhysicists Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch announce the discovery of nuclear fission. This discovery was a critical steps toward the creation of the atomic bombSigns Executive Order 8029, requiring all immigrants who entered the US to possess a diplomatic visa, a passport visa, or other legal documentsAnnual State of the Union Message. In his speech, Roosevelt reflects on the importance of democracy and acknowledges the dark global affairs that threaten itAnnual budget message issued including a request of $1.3 billion for defenseCalifornia holds the Golden Gate Exposition in San Francisco, which highlights many aspects of California, including the recently completed Golden Gate BridgeThe American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organization begin negotiations to solve labor disputesThe Supreme Court rules 7-2 that employers did not have to rehire employees who participated in a sit-down strike in NLRB v. Fansteel Metallurgical CorpGermany invades and defeats CzechoslovakiaAmerica condemns Germany’s takeover of Czechoslovakia and reiterates the agreement of nations to non-intervention in the affairs of other sovereign nationsUS government recognizes new government in Spain under General Francisco FrancoIn an Address on Pan American Day, comments with reference to the burgeoning conflict in Europe that "the economic collapse of any Nation or nations must of necessity harm our own prosperity." The United States will defend our peace "to the fullest extent of our strength, matching force to force if any attempt is made to subvert our institutions. . . "Writes to Hitler and Mussolini calling for "assurance that your armed forces will not attack or invade the territory or possessions" of 31 countriesThe New York World Fair opens, with visitors from around the worldThe government begins to study why money is idle, in other words why it is in the hands of Americans but not being invested back into the economyGermany and Italy sign the Pact of Steel, perceived internationally as an alliance committed to controlling neighboring statesRoosevelt opposes a child refugee bill which would allow for the placement of child refugees from GermanyMessage to Congress on Neutrality Laws. Forwards and endorses a detailed statement from the Secretary of State emphasizing that neutrality does not mean impartiality which will not serve the US interests in peaceSigns the Hatch Act. This act applied to employees under the executive branch to maintain a work environment free from partisan coercion or partisan influenceEinstein writes a letter to Roosevelt warning of the possibility of a uranium-powered bombGermany and the Soviet Union sign a non-aggression pact. This pact also includes provisions that describe how Poland would be divided in the event of its invasion and defeatRoosevelt asks Hitler to come to a peaceful resolution with PolandGermany invades Poland, officially starting World War II. In a press conference, Roosevelt assures reporters that America will be able to maintain neutralityIn response to Germany’s invasion of Poland, Britain and France declare War on GermanyFollowing France and Britain’s declaration of war against Germany, President Roosevelt once again maintains the US’ position of neutralitySigns Executive Order 8248 defining the divisions of the Executive Office of the PresidentSoviet Union invades Poland without a formal declaration of warAfter 19 days of armed resistance, Warsaw surrenders to Germany. Germany segregates Polish Jews into ghettos, where they were kept under strict regulationsAnnounces Proclamation 2371 in which America closes all ports to belligerent nationsAnnounces Proclamation 2374 in which he signs an amendment for the Neutrality Act. It allows for the sale of arms to Britain and FranceIssues a statement regarding a Russian invasion of Finland and the bombing of HelsinkiIn a News Conference, declines to comment on the status of negotiations with the JapaneseThe Soviet Army repulses the German attack on Moscow. This is the first major defeat for the German Army in World War II. The Soviet counteroffensive began the next dayRoosevelt publicly appeals to Japan to avoid war in the PacificJapan bombs Pearl Harbor and the United States declares war on Japan the next dayRoosevelt declares December 7th as a “date which will live in infamy” and urges Congress to declare war on Japan. Later that same day, Congress passed a joint resolution, which the President then signed (55 Stat 795), declaring that a State of War exists with JapanJapan’s Naval Fleet attacks the PhilippinesGermany and Italy declare war on the United StatesIn a Message to Congress, Roosevelt responds to Japan’s aggression against the Philippines. He exclaims that “Japan made it necessary. . . to keep in the Pacific in self-defense large armed forces and a vast amount of material which might otherwise have been used against Hitler.”Issues Executive Order 8985 establishing the emergency wartime agency, the Office of CensorshipThe First Washington Conference (aka Arcadia Conference). Wide-ranging war-planning including a determination to initially emphasize defeating Germany. Extensive State Department Papers concerning this meeting are onlineAfter engaging in combat for three days, the US military declares Manila an open city. Manila abandoned its defensive efforts to peacefully allow Japan to occupy itDespite Manila being declared an open city, Japan continues to execute bombing raids. In response, Roosevelt said he counted “on every Philippine man, woman, and child to do his duty.’The United States and 25 other nations sign a Declaration of United Nations, announcing their resolve against the Axis powers. Domestically, the sale of new cars is banned in the US to preserve steelJapan captures Manila and two military bases in the PhilippinesStatement Against Discharging Loyal Aliens from Jobs. Calls the practice by employers “as stupid as it is unjust.”Tire rationing goes into effect. By March 1943 rationing will extend to cars, bicycles, gasoline, fuel oil, solid fuels, stoves, rubber footwear, shoes, sugar, coffee, processed foods, meats, canned fish, cheese, typewritersState of the Union AddressSigns Executive Order 9017 creating The War Labor Board which will help to resolve labor disputes to keep war production runningAnnounces Proclamation 2537, forcing aliens from Italy, Germany, and Japan to register with US Department of Justice. This proclamation helped facilitate the later internment of Japanese AmericansSigns the Emergency Price Control Act which places a ceiling on prices in the nation, save for agricultural productsRoosevelt signs Executive Order 9066. This executive order created internment camps where over 100,000 Japanese Americans were incarcerated during the warRoosevelt orders General MacArthur to leave the Philippines and relocate to AustraliaJapan attacks United States mainland and shells an oil refinery in Santa Barbara, CaliforniaMacArthur departed for Australia to assume position as Supreme Commander of the Southwest PacificStatement on General MacArthur’s Departure from the PhilippinesGermany begins to deport Jews to Auschwitz-BirkenauSurprise bombing attack. Lt. Col. James H. Doolittle leads a successful surprise bombing raid of Tokyo and other Japanese cities and targets. The raid causes Japanese alarm and planning for further attacks. In comments in a News Conference of April 28, and a Fireside Chat on April 28, The President declined to acknowledge the raidsFort Corregidor is surrendered to the Japanese and American forces in the Philippines are forced to surrenderThe Battle of Coral Sea is the first major naval victory for the U.S. Navy in the Pacific since the attack on Pearl HarborSigns legislation authorizing the creation of The Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (56 Stat 278). By Executive Order on 5/15/1942 creates the Women’s Auxiliary Army CorpsBattle of Midway. The United States has its first significant victory against the Japanese at the Battle of Midway, shifting the tide of momentum in the warRadio Address on the Scrap Rubber Campaign. National drive to collect rubber for the war effortBy Executive Order, the Office of War Information is created to assure “an accurate and consistent flow of war information to the public and the world at large.”By Executive Order establishes the Office of Strategic Services, an intelligence service that later becomes the Central Intelligence AgencyRoosevelt and Churchill meet in DC to discuss the invasion of North Africa. This is “The Second Washington Conference” extensively documented by the U.S. State DepartmentThe New York Times reports that at least 1,000,000 Polish Jews have been murdered by NazisU.S. troops begin a major assault on Guadalcanal Island in the Solomon Islands Chain. The goal was to gain control of a strategically located airfield. Fierce fighting continued until February 1943 when the Japanese forces withdrewThe Army Corps of Engineers sets up the Manhattan Engineering District (located initially in Manhattan) to develop an atomic bomb. The main weapons research laboratory was later located in Los Alamos, NMMessage to Congress on Stabilizing the Economy. Urges purchasing War Bonds, discourages buying on credit, rationing all essential commoditiesTransfers a newly built US naval vessel (“escort ship”) to the Norwegian NavyPhysicist, Robert Oppenheimer, becomes Project Manhattan’s scientific directorSigns “An Act to Amend the Emergency Price Control Act of 1942, to Aid in Preventing Inflation, and for Other Purposes”By Executive Order, invokes authority in Price Control Act of 10/02/1942 to creates the Office of Economic Stabilization in the Executive office of the PresidentAnnounces the US intent to assure that war criminals are required to answer for their crimes before a court of lawThe Revenue Act of 1942 is passed, increasing taxes and instituting a 5% Victory TaxRadio Address to the French People on the North African InvasionStatement on Signing the Bill Reducing the Draft Age. The draft age is reduced from 21 to 19First sustained nuclear fission chain reaction engineered by scientists at the University of Chicago beginning the Atomic AgeEarl Warren becomes the 29th Governor of CaliforniaThe Allies meet at the Casablanca Conference and agree upon demanding unconditional surrender and the invasion path of Europe, as well as committing to increasing aid for RussiaBombers from the U.S. Eight Air Force launch the first American bombing raid in Germany hitting Wilhelmshaven naval yardGerman troops surrender in Stalingrad after being overwhelmed by Russian forces and the arduous Russian winterRoosevelt congratulates Stalin on a Russian victory at Stalingrad, forcing the Germans to retreatAdds Saudi Arabia to the list of beneficiaries of the 1941 Lend-Lease program, claiming that it is vital to the defense of the United States to defend Saudi ArabiaSigns Executive Order 9328 freezing prices and salaries to stop inflationAllied Forces force Axis powers out of North AfricaTrident Conference held in Washington D.C. to facilitate strategic planning among the U.S. and U.K. heads of government. Important focus on invasion of EuropeBritish Prime Minister Winston Churchill addresses a Joint Session of Congress shortly after noon. He discusses the military cooperation between the US and UK in confronting Germany and Japan. "I do not intend to be responsible for any suggestion that the war is won or will soon be over. That it will be won by us I am sure."Signs Executive Order 9347 which establishes The Office of War Mobilization to coordinate the national war effortSigns Current Tax Payment Act requiring the withholding of federal income tax from worker’s paychecks by employersThe Supreme Court rules that the First Amendment protects the religious right of school children not to salute the flag by a 6-3 vote in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, reversing the 8-1 decision in 1940 in Minersville School District v. Gobitis, that the pledge could be made mandatory in the interest of national unityRace riot occurs in Detroit, Michigan in which black and white people engage in fighting, resulting in the death of 34 peopleBy Proclamation, directs Detroit Race Rioters to Disperse. Acknowledges request from Governor of Michigan for federal military interventionAnnounces, at a State Dinner, imminent invasion of Sicily, “the soft underbelly of Europe.”In a News Conference, discusses the Allies’ bombing of Rome, despite previous cultural reservations, on 07/19/1943. States that Rome was being used as an important military centerBenito Mussolini is dismissed as Prime Minister by Italian King Victor Emmanuel and announces his resignation. Subsequently arrested and detained, Mussolini was freed by the Germans around 09/18/1943Calls for the Italian people to surrender in a joint message with Prime Minister ChurchillAt the Quebec Conference, the Allies agree on a plan to invade FranceItaly signs an armistice and surrenders to the AlliesJoint Message with Churchill to Marshal Badoglio on the Armistice with ItalyMessage to Congress on the Progress of the War. Long document recounting actions taken and goals reached. Calls for postwar planning to begin now. “We seek a national cooperation with other Nations toward the end that world aggression be ended. . .”Message to Congress on Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Laws. This repeal will “correct a historic mistake and silence the distorted Japanese propaganda.”Moscow Conference. A conference of foreign ministers of the U.S., U.K. and U.S.S.R. convenes to discuss wartime and post-war cooperationMessage to Congress on the Education of War Veterans. “Lack of money should not prevent any veteran of this war from equipping himself for the most useful employment for which his aptitudes and willingness qualify him.”Joint Statement with Churchill and Stalin on Atrocities. Germans who commit war crimes “will be brought back to the scene of their crimes and judged on the spot by the peoples whom they have outraged.”Statement on the Seizure of the Coal Mines. “The grievances of the miners have been heard. They have been fairly dealt with. The Government offers the miners a fair contract. They have no right in wartime to refuse to work under it.”Address on the Signing of the Agreement Establishing the U.N.R.R.A. Forty-four nations sign an agreement creating the United Nations relief and Rehabilitation AdministrationMessage to Congress on Appropriations for the U.N.R.R.A. Asks for a bill authorizing funds for the UNRRA, but not at that time recommending a specific sumCairo Conferences. President Roosevelt meets with President of the Republic of China, Chiang Kai-shek, and Prime Minister of Britain, Winston Churchill, to establish an Allied position against JapanTehran Conference. President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill, and Joseph Stalin meet in Tehran to discuss war and strategy. Together, these men devise a plan for the Battle of Normandy. The seeds of the Cold War are sown at this conferenceThe United States, Britain, and The Soviet Union release the Tehran DeclarationStatement on Signing the Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Acts, (57 Stat 600) which had intended to restrict or prohibit Chinese immigration to the United StatesChristmas Eve Fireside Chat. Describes his understandings with Churchill, Stalin, and Chiang Kai-shek for a post-war world. Announces that General Dwight Eisenhower will command the allied attack on Germany. States that he “got along fine” with Stalin. Warns that the fight ahead will not be easy “and the end is not yet in sight.”Executive Order 9412—Seizure and Operation of the Railroads. A threatened strike would disrupt transportation services necessary for the war effortState of the Union MessageMessage to Congress on Voting by Members of the Armed Services. Unless Congress acts, most members of the armed services will not be eligible to vote in the Fall because absentee voting is not permitted, or registration must be done in person, or regulations are so complex someone overseas cannot complyThe United States starts the invasion of Marshall Islands in the PacificStatement on Opening Frontiers to War Victims and Justice for War Crimes. “In one of the blackest crimes in all history. . . the wholesale systematic murder of the Jews of Europe goes on unabated every hour.”Signs a Joint Resolution enabling the United States to Participate in the United National Relief and Rehabilitation Organization (58 Stat122) and authorizing appropriations for the purposeThe Supreme Court rules 8-1 that the Texas Democratic Party’s all-white primary is unconstitutional in Smith v. AllwrightIn a Press Conference, discusses his concept for a “unity of the United Nations toward the prevention, if we can humanly help it, of another World War.”In a Fireside Chat, informs the nation that Rome fell yesterday, and warns that respect to Germany, “the victory still lies some distance ahead.”Roosevelt leads the nation in prayer before the D-Day invasion of NormandyRoosevelt arranges for 6,000 more refugees to be brought from Italy to the United States to escape persecution from the NazisReleases a statement approving Joint Resolution on the Pearl Harbor Trial and Investigation.In the Battle of the Philippine Sea, U.S. naval forces claim complete victory and significantly weaken the Japanese Navy. This is an important battle in WWII as it opened opportunities for further invasion by Allied ForcesSigns the GI Bill which ensures education, housing, and other needs for veterans following the warThe Bretton Woods Conference establishes the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF)Roosevelt agrees to serve a fourth term if he is nominatedAccepts nomination for President of the Democratic Party for an unprecedented fourth termA group of German military and civilian leaders carried out a bomb attack on Hitler that failed in harming him. They had planned to negotiate an armistice to end the warOperation Cobra initiated by U.S. armed forces, cutting off German forces and creating an opening for Allied forces to breakout of NormandyThomas Dewey, former Governor of New York, accepts the nomination for President of the Republican ConventionU.S. retakes Guam at the end of the Battle of GuamThe Dumbarton Oaks Conference is held in Washington and is attended by the United States, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union. The conference lays the groundwork for the creation of the United NationsIn a Press Conference, says that he has not seen Harry Truman, Vice-Presidential nominee or discussed plans for his role in the campaignAfter a series of military battles, Paris is liberated and reclaimed from the GermansIssues a statement on the liberation of LuxembourgOctagon Conference held in Quebec where Roosevelt and Churchill discuss the invasion of France and how to proceed in the Pacific Theater (Japan) and GermanyStatement on the Dumbarton Oaks Conversations. Expresses “extreme satisfaction” that so much was accomplished so quicklyGeneral MacArthur returns to the Philippines in the invasion of Leyte, and the Philippines Campaign begins againElection day. During the chaos of World War II, the American people reelect Roosevelt. He becomes the first president to receive a fourth term. He receives 53% of the popular vote and 81% of the electoral voteAs the war appears to reach a close, Roosevelt warns any government officials from speaking about the end of the warThe Germans launch a counteroffensive—their last—in what comes to be known as the Battle of the Bulge. The fighting lasted until January 16, 1945In Korematsu v. United States, the Supreme Court decides 6-3 to uphold the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066 of 02/19/1942. This order had required Japanese-Americans to move to concentration camps. This decision was eventually overrulled in Trump v. Hawaii in 2018Submits a written State of the Union Message to Congress and also broadcasts an Address to the Nation “ repeating some parts of that message.” Expresses hope that 1945 will see the end of the Nazi-Fascist reign of terror and calls for active post-war planningFourth Inaugural AddressThe capital of the Philippines, Manilla, is liberatedRoosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin meet at the Yalta (on the Crimean Peninsula on the Black Sea) Conference and discuss the end of the war and the treatment of Germany. The result is a plan to divide Germany into four post-war occupation zonesMessage to Congress on the Bretton Woods Agreements, in which it was decided, among other things, that the central banks of participating countries would maintain fixed exchange rates between the dollar and their currencyMeets with King Abdul Aziz al Saud of Saudi Arabia, the first time a U.S. President had ever met with a Saudi Arabian king, establishing a foundation of U.S.-Saudi relations that ensured access to Saudi oilBattle of Iwo Jima. On February 19th, U.S. Marines invade Iwo Jima, finally securing the island. This was an exceedingly difficult and important battle, granting the U.S. a strategic location for U.S. planes and bombers to land on and leave from when attacking JapanRoosevelt invites a United States delegation to the United Nations Conference on April 25, 1945Message to Congress on the Trade Agreements Act. The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (passed in July 1945) revolutionized the global economic orderUS troops invade Okinawa marking a turning point in the war in the Pacific TheaterRoosevelt dies in Warm Springs, Georgia following a massive cerebral hemorrhageVice President Harry Truman becomes President. Shortly thereafter he learns for the first time about the Manhattan project and the atomic bombAnnounces the death of President Roosevelt. Declares April 14 as a national day of mourningMakes first address as President to a joint session of Congress. “With great humility I call upon all Americans to help me keep our nation united in defense of those ideals which have been so eloquently proclaimed by Franklin Roosevelt.”Delivers address in San Francisco at the first United Nations Conference. “If we do not want to die together in war, we must learn to live together in peace . . . We must build a new world—a far better world—one in which the eternal dignity of man is respected.” Representatives of 50 countries had convened to draft the UN CharterBenito Mussolini is executed by Italian partisans who capture him attempting to escape into SwitzerlandAmerican forces liberate the Dachau concentration campAdolf Hitler commits suicide at his bunker under the Reich ChancelleryMessage to Allied Commanders on the Surrender of German Forces in ItalyNews conference where the president is asked about the death of Hitler, and he responds that he doesn't know the cause of deathState of the UnionIssues a Letter on Appropriations. Congress gives an extra $15 million in appropriations for war materialsIssues a Statement of Respect and Regard for Finland. Finland signs a peace agreement with Russia, surrendering some of its territory in the processIssues a statement on the German invasion of Norway and Denmark—soon after Denmark surrenders. America stays neutralAnnounces Proclamation 2394, forbidding American vessels or citizens from entering combat areas when they are definedThe Supreme Court rules that an anti-picketing law in Alabama violated the First Amendment by an 8-1 vote in Thornhill v. AlabamaThe Helsinki Summer Olympics are canceled following Soviet invasion of Finland. An earlier plan to locate the games in Tokyo had been canceled in 1938 when the Japanese government chose to withdraw their bidWinston Churchill becomes Britain’s new Prime MinisterGermany invades Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium. America stays neutralGermany invades France using a coordinated military attack called Blitzkrieg. German troops traveled southward from Belgium and Eastward from Germany to trap France’s troopsOffice for Emergency Management established by administrative order in accordance with EO 8248 (09/08/1939, above) to help prepare for, mitigate, and respond to threat or emergenciesOver 300,000 allied troops escape France during the “Miracle of Dunkirk.”At an address at the University of Virginia, US “neutrality” status is changed to one of non-belligerency. The United States will help the Allies short of going to war against the Axis Powers. Many understand that official war is soon to followAfter witnessing Germany’s invasion of France, Italy declares war on the weakened AlliesSurprises observers by nominating two Republicans to leading positions in the cabinet, Henry Stimson as Secretary of War and Frank Knox as Secretary of the Navy. Isolationists criticize the move as foretelling more US involvement in aid to the alliesAfter weeks of German warfare on French soil, France surrenders to GermanySigns Alien Registration Act which requires all foreign residents to be fingerprinted and documentedNominated by the Democratic Party for an unprecedented third termRoosevelt requests a defense budget of $4.8 billion. The Battle of Britain begins on this dayGermany begins a night bombing campaign in London. Two days after, Britain responds by bombing BerlinThe United States trades 50 old destroyers to Britain in exchange for the ability to construct naval bases on their holdings in the Western HemisphereAuthorizes the first peace-time military draft by signing the Selective Training and Service ActGermany, Japan, and Italy sign a formal alliance called the AxisElection Day. Roosevelt defeats Wendell L. Willkie with 54.7% of the popular vote and 84.6% of the electoral vote. Roosevelt wins re-election, embarking on an unprecedented third termAnnounces in press conference his plan to further establish and define the Office for Emergency ManagementFireside Chat. The President warns forcefully of the threats facing the United States and the impossibility of compromising or appeasing the Axis powers. “We must be the great arsenal of democracy. For us this is an emergency as serious as war itself. . . . [we must] increase our production of all the implements of defense, to meet the threat to our democratic faith.”State of the UnionSigns Executive Order 8629, to further define the functions and duties of the Office for Emergency Management with the goal of increasing production for national defenseThird Inaugural AddressSigns the Lend-Lease Act which allows the president to lend arms to alliesSigns Executive Order 8734 in which the Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply is created, made to stabilize and exert control over pricesIssues a statement in which the United States condemns the Vichy government’s cooperation with the German occupationAn American civilian ship is sunk by a German U-boat near the coast of BrazilBy Proclamation 2487, declares an unlimited national emergency. This follows the German defeat of Greece and Yugoslavia. Calls for “readiness to repel any and all acts or threats of aggression directed toward any part of the western Hemisphere.”Signs Executive Order 8785, which allowed The United States to freeze the assets of Germans and ItaliansOrders the closure of United States’ German consulates and alike American offices in GermanyGermany begins Operation Barbarossa and invades Soviet Union. In the process Germany violates its non-aggression pact with RussiaSigns Executive Order 8802 establishing the Fair Employment Practices Committee and ending discrimination in the defense industrySigns Executive Order 8832 freezing Japanese and Chinese assets in the United States pursuant to his declaration of 05/27/1941 of an unlimited national emergency. This was in reaction to Japanese military movements into southern IndochinaRoosevelt signs Executive Order 8807 establishing the Office of Scientific Research and Development, which develops military technologyMessage to Congress on Landing Troops in Iceland, Trinidad, and British Guiana. US forces will replace British troops outside the war zone so that they can be relocated to active conflict. Calls the moves defensive on the part of the USPlaces the Armed Forces of the Philippines under United States Command. Acts pursuant to the Philippine Independence Act of 03/24/1934. The Secretary of War named General Douglas MacArthur to command these forcesAfter meetings with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Britain and America announce the Atlantic Charter, which states eight goals for the world and serves as the blueprint for the United NationsBy Executive Order, elaborates on the responsibilities of the Office for Emergency Management and re-names the Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply as simply the Office of Price AdministrationDescribes the German attack on the postal ship, U.S.S. Greer and other vessels in a Fireside Chat. Says that “the incident is not isolated, but part of a general plan.”Signs the Revenue Act of 1941 (55 Stat 687) which was estimated to increase annual tax revenues by more than $3 billion. The top marginal tax on corporate income was 37% and on individuals (including a surtax) was 81%Announces that the US will deliver “munitions, including tanks, airplanes, and trucks” to RussiaAddresses recent attacks on U.S. Navy. “The shooting has started. . . . America has been attacked. . . . “ Stated that he had a secret map showing Hitler’s plans for redrawing boundary lines in South America. “We stand ready in the defense of our Nation and in the faith of our fathers to do what God has given us the power to see as our full duty.”By Executive Order, creates the Office of Lend Lease Administration in the Executive office of the PresidentJapanese special envoy Saburo Kurusu and the Japanese Ambassador, Kichisaburo Nomura meet Roosevelt at the White House, accompanied by Secretary of State Cordell Hull with whom they had met earlierFurther meetings and discussions between Kurusu, Nomura and Hull and a telephone call with Roosevelt. Hull rejects the Japanese proposalGermany surrenders unconditionally to the Allies, bringing an end to Nazi Germany and ending World War II in EuropeCalls for the unconditional surrender of Japan in order to officially bring World War II to a closeBroadcast to the American People Announcing the Surrender of GermanyFirst meeting of the “Interim Committee” formed by Secretary of State Henry Stimson to advise the President about the use of nuclear energy and weaponsThe Interim Committee recommends keeping the A-bomb secret until it has been used on Japan; and that the attack should take place as soon as possibleAddress before the Senate urging ratification of the United Nations Charter. The Senate ratified on 07/28/1945 and it entered into force on 10/24/1945Releases a joint report by Allied leaders on the Potsdam Conference. The conference is in Potsdam, Germany, which borders the city of Berlin, from 07/17/1945 to 08/02/1945. The last of the Big Three meetings during World War II, the Conference is attended by the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union; on the agenda is partitioning of the postwar world and resolving the problems of the war in East AsiaJoint Proclamation from Potsdam conferees urging Japanese surrender [“The Potsdam Declaration”]. “The might that now converges on Japan is immeasurably greater than that which, when applied to the resisting Nazis, necessarily laid waste to the lands, the industry and the method of life of the whole Germany people.”Western newspapers report prominently that the Japanese government has officially rejected the ultimatum in the Potsdam declarationAnnounces the use of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima, JapanDelivers radio report to the American people following the Potsdam Conference. Truman explains the Allies’ objective to obtain war reparations from Germany, emphasizes the need to support European nations in their rebuilding efforts, and demands surrender by Japan. “. . .the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, a military base. . . . We have used it in order to shorten the agony of war. . . ”Second atomic bomb is detonated over Nagasaki, JapanJapan officially surrendersAddress to the American People After the Signing of the Terms of Unconditional Surrender by Japan. “Victory always has its burdens and its responsibilities as well as its rejoicing.”In a Special Message, presents a 21-point plan for the reconversion of the United StatesDelivers statement following Korea’s liberation from Japanese occupation and colonial rule; the United States commits itself to ensuring its independenceEstablishes a week dedicated to employing those with physical disabilitiesSpecial Message to the Congress on Atomic Energy. Requests the creation of an Atomic Energy Commission to oversee the development of atomic power for appropriate purposesAddress to Joint Session of Congress on Universal Military Training. Argues for universal military training—a draft—although he does not used that word. “The backbone of our military force should be the trained citizen who is first and foremost a civilian, and who becomes a soldier or a sailor only in time of danger--and only when Congress considers it necessary.” See below 06/24/1948 Selective Service ActThe United Nations officially comes into existence after the Charter is ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and a majority of other signatoriesReleases a letter to British Prime Minister Attlee, dated August 31, 1945. Discusses the report of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry (see below, 4/20/1946) and the recommendation to admit 100,000 refugees to PalestineThe International Military Tribunal begins the trial of Nazi leaders accused of war crimes—the Nuremberg Trials. Justice Robert Jackson took leave from the U.S. Supreme Court to serve as chief American prosecutor at the war crimes trial. Jackson made a much-cited opening statement on 11/21/1945News Conference following the signing of a Joint Declaration on Atomic Energy with Great Britain and CanadaReleases statement following a White House meeting to avert a United States Steel Corporation strikeFirst Annual State of the Union MessageIssues executive order that considers the creation of a Jewish stateSigns the Employment Act of 1946, which charges the federal government with maintaining low unemployment and price stabilityGeorge Kennan, a US diplomat stationed in Moscow, sends a lengthy analysis of Soviet thinking and strategy that becomes known as “The Long Telegram.” Widely considered to be the origins of the policy of “containment.” “Gauged against Western World as a whole, Soviets are still by far the weaker force. Thus, their success will really depend on the degree of cohesion, firmness and vigor which Western World can muster.”Churchill “Sinews of Peace” Speech, better known as his “Iron Curtain Speech.” He was introduced by President TrumanRelease of the Report of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry established to examine conditions in Palestine as they bear upon the problem of Jewish immigration and settlement therein. Among the recommendation that 100,000 victims of Nazi and Fascist persecution be immediately admitted to PalestineStatement on receiving the Report of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. “One of the significant features in the report is that it aims to insure complete protection to the Arab population of Palestine by guaranteeing their civil and religious rights. . . “Calls upon the U.S. Army to take over the railroads after failing to reach a compromise in the railroad strike. Subsequent laws passed to end the strike significantly decrease the power of laborAddresses a Joint Session of Congress on the topic of the recently started railroad strike. “. . . unless the railroads are manned by returning strikers, I shall immediately undertake to run them by the Army of the United States.”In Morgan v. Virginia the Supreme Court holds that segregating riders by race on interstate busses violates the Interstate Commerce Clause of the Constitution. This case is important in the desegregation movement of the 1960sOfficially recognizes the Philippines as a separate and self-governing nationZionists bomb the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, killing 91 and injuring 45. British forces deny receiving advance warningSigns the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (60 Stat 755) providing for the development and control of atomic energy and authorizing the Atomic Energy CommissionThe White House releases statement that advocates a peaceful compromise between the British government and Palestine on the creation of Israel and urges nations to admit displaced persons as permanent residentsCommerce Secretary Henry Wallace makes a speech in New York that is critical of US foreign policy especially toward the Soviet Union. Truman appeared to have approved of the language in a News Conference that same dayTruman publicly requests Wallace’s resignation. “No member of the Executive branch of the Government will make any public statement as to foreign policy which is in conflict with our established policy.”The Palestine Conference in London ends before a solution can be found. Truman states that the immigration of 100,000 Jewish refugees into an area of Palestine must begin immediately and cannot wait until after a resolution is establishedIn the midterm elections, Republicans gain heavily in both Houses, winning majorities in House and Senate for the first time since 1930
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