Celtas (1 janv. 1200 av. J.-C. – 1 janv. 0)

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Celtas é a designação dada a um conjunto de povos (um etnónimo), organizados em múltiplas tribos e pertencentes à família linguística indo-europeia que se espalhou pela maior parte do Oeste da Europa a partir do II milénio a.C.. A primeira referência literária aos celtas (Κελτοί) foi feita pelo historiador grego Hecateu de Mileto no século VI a.C.. Boa parte da população da Europa ocidental pertencia às etnias celtas até à conquista daqueles territórios pelo Império Romano; organizavam-se em tribos, que ocupavam o território desde a Península Ibérica até à Anatólia. A maioria dos povos celtas foi conquistada, e mais tarde integrada, pelos Romanos, embora o modo de vida celta tenha, sob muitas formas e com muitas alterações resultantes da aculturação devida aos invasores e à posterior cristianização, sobrevivido em grande parte do território por eles ocupado.

Existiam diversos grupos celtas compostos de várias tribos, entre eles os bretões, os gauleses, os escotos, os eburões, os batavos, os belgas, os gálatas, os trinovantes e os caledónios. Muitos destes grupos deram origem ao nome das províncias romanas na Europa, as quais mais tarde baptizaram alguns dos estados-nações medievais e modernos da Europa. Os celtas são considerados os introdutores da metalurgia do ferro na Europa, dando origem naquele continente à Idade do Ferro (culturas de Hallstatt e La Tène), bem como das calças na indumentária masculina (embora essas sejam provavelmente originárias das estepes asiáticas). Tal como consta que traziam com eles um pequeno cavalo muito parecido com o português garrano, que nessa língua quer dizer "cavalo pequeno".[1]

Outras regiões europeias que também se identificam com a cultura celta são o País de Gales, uma entidade subnacional do Reino Unido, a Cornualha (Reino Unido), Escócia (Reino Unido), Irlanda, a Gália (França, e Norte da Itália), o Norte de Portugal e a Galiza (Noroeste da Espanha). Nestas regiões os traços linguísticos celtas sobrevivem nos topónimos, em algumas formas linguísticas, no folclore e tradições. A influência cultural celta, que jamais desapareceu, tem mesmo experimentado um ciclo de expansão em sua antiga zona de influência, com o aparecimento de música de inspiração celta e no reviver de muitos usos e costumes conhecidos atualmente como celtismo.

RELIGION
Polytheism
Main articles: Celtic polytheism and Celtic animism
Like other European Iron Age tribal societies, the Celts practised a polytheistic religion.[125] Many Celtic gods are known from texts and inscriptions from the Roman period. Rites and sacrifices were carried out by priests known as druids. The Celts did not see their gods as having human shapes until late in the Iron Age. Celtic shrines were situated in remote areas such as hilltops, groves, and lakes.

Celtic religious patterns were regionally variable; however, some patterns of deity forms, and ways of worshipping these deities, appeared over a wide geographical and temporal range. The Celts worshipped both gods and goddesses. In general, Celtic gods were deities of particular skills, such as the many-skilled Lugh and Dagda, while goddesses were associated with natural features, particularly rivers (such as Boann, goddess of the River Boyne). This was not universal, however, as goddesses such as Brighid and The Morrígan were associated with both natural features (holy wells and the River Unius) and skills such as blacksmithing and healing.[126]

Triplicity is a common theme in Celtic cosmology, and a number of deities were seen as threefold.[127] This trait is exhibited by The Three Mothers, a group of goddesses worshipped by many Celtic tribes (with regional variations).[128]

The Celts had hundreds of deities, some of which were unknown outside a single family or tribe, while others were popular enough to have a following that crossed lingual and cultural barriers. For instance, the Irish god Lugh, associated with storms, lightning, and culture, is seen in similar forms as Lugos in Gaul and Lleu in Wales. Similar patterns are also seen with the continental Celtic horse goddess Epona and what may well be her Irish and Welsh counterparts, Macha and Rhiannon, respectively.[129]

Roman reports of the druids mention ceremonies being held in sacred groves. La Tène Celts built temples of varying size and shape, though they also maintained shrines at sacred trees and votive pools.[125]

Druids fulfilled a variety of roles in Celtic religion, serving as priests and religious officiants, but also as judges, sacrificers, teachers, and lore-keepers. Druids organised and ran religious ceremonies, and they memorised and taught the calendar. Other classes of druids performed ceremonial sacrifices of crops and animals for the perceived benefit of the community.[130]

Gallic calendar
The Coligny calendar, which was found in 1897 in Coligny, Ain, was engraved on a bronze tablet, preserved in 73 fragments, that originally was 1.48 metres (4 feet 10 inches) wide and 0.9 metres (2 feet 11 inches) high (Lambert p. 111). Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects, it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century.[131] It is written in Latin inscriptional capitals, and is in the Gallic language. The restored tablet contains 16 vertical columns, with 62 months distributed over 5 years.

The French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by druids wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the Julian calendar was imposed throughout the Roman Empire. However, the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars (or parapegmata) found throughout the Greek and Roman world.[132]

Roman influence
Further information: Gallo-Roman culture
The Roman invasion of Gaul brought a great deal of Celtic peoples into the Roman Empire. Roman culture had a profound effect on the Celtic tribes which came under the empire's control. Roman influence led to many changes in Celtic religion, the most noticeable of which was the weakening of the druid class, especially religiously; the druids were to eventually disappear altogether. Romano-Celtic deities also began to appear: these deities often had both Roman and Celtic attributes, combined the names of Roman and Celtic deities, and/or included couples with one Roman and one Celtic deity. Other changes included the adaptation of the Jupiter Column, a sacred column set up in many Celtic regions of the empire, primarily in northern and eastern Gaul. Another major change in religious practice was the use of stone monuments to represent gods and goddesses. The Celts had only created wooden idols (including monuments carved into trees, which were known as sacred poles) previously to Roman conquest.[128]

Celtic Christianity
Main article: Celtic Christianity
While the regions under Roman rule adopted Christianity along with the rest of the Roman empire, unconquered areas of Ireland and Scotland began to move from Celtic polytheism to Christianity in the 5th century. Ireland was converted by missionaries from Britain, such as Saint Patrick. Later missionaries from Ireland were a major source of missionary work in Scotland, Anglo-Saxon parts of Britain, and central Europe (see Hiberno-Scottish mission). Celtic Christianity, the forms of Christianity that took hold in Britain and Ireland at this time, had for some centuries only limited and intermittent contact with Rome and continental Christianity, as well as some contacts with Coptic Christianity. Some elements of Celtic Christianity developed, or retained, features that made them distinct from the rest of Western Christianity, most famously their conservative method of calculating the date of Easter. In 664, the Synod of Whitby began to resolve these differences, mostly by adopting the current Roman practices, which the Gregorian Mission from Rome had introduced to Anglo-Saxon England.

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