Revolutions of 1848-1849 (1 janv. 1848 – 1 déc. 1849)

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Economic problems, bad reforms, and reactionary policies by Metternich triggered liberal, peasant, and nationalist discontent. Revolutions took place all over Europe but began in Siciliy.

King Ferdinand II became a respressive leader. In January 1848, notices were put up in Palermo telling Sicilians to revolt and, on the specified day, a revolution started. Revolutionaries, peasants included, successfully overtook the city and demanded a restoration of the 1812 constitution which was abolished in 1816 (they were denied). By April, most of the island had been taken and a provisional government was set up by moderates and liberals, who were fairly anxious about the next actions of the peasants. A parliament was elected declaring Sicily to be separate from Naples - their movement was separatist, and not nationalist, in nature.

Revolution spread to Naples, and a huge demonstration would lead the king to capitulate to their demands of a constitution, parliament, and freedom of press. However, infighting between peasants and middle-class over their right to use common land let the king’s troops defeat the revolutionaries in Naples and then Sicily. By spring of 1849, Sicily was forced to reunite with Naples and the parliament was abolished in favour of police rule and an absolutist state.

In central and northern Italy, disturbances in 1848 caused Tuscany and Piedmont to obtain constitutions, soon followed by the Papal States. In Modena and Parma, the rulers were forced to leave. But in Milan, Lombardy, which was a state controlled by Austria, a revolution started between 17-22 March, triggered by a tobacco boycott (which would lead people to attacking soldiers in the streets, turning to riots and soon a full on revolt). The vice-governor, Count O’Donnell, eventually gave in to the protesters’ demands after a few guards were shot. General Radetzky, commander of the Austrian forces, decided to withdraw around this time - mostly due to internal conflict within Austria, due to revolution in Vienna and Metternich’s resignation. A provisional government was set up in Milan and they asked Piedmont king Charles Albert for help, which was granted and war was declared by Piedmont on Austria (Italy’s 1st independence war).
The other Austrian-controlled state, Venetia, revolted as well and declared itself independent in March 1849, voting for union with Piedmont.
In the Papal states, Pius IX - who did not want to oppose Austria - withdrew his support for nationalists and turned to reactionary policy, even as his forces joined Charles Albert. As such, liberal and nationalist movements ended up becoming anticlerical.
In July 1848, Radetzky went back to Italy after things calmed down in Austria, and defeated Charles Albert in Custoza. An armistice was signed and Lombardy was returned to Austrian hands. Venetia, meanwhile, cancelled its union with Piedmont and prepared to continue the war with Austria. A siege by the Austrian navy and an outbreak of cholera forced them to surrender in August 1849. Manin was then forced into exile.
In November 1848, the Pope’s chief minister Count Pellegrino Rossi was murdered, and the Pope was forced to flee to Naples. In February of 1849, the Roman Republic was established and Mazzini became the head of its triumvirate. France would come in and overthrow the republic in July 1849, but during the 100 days that Mazzini governed, he:
Abolished the death penalty and the Inquisition
Reformed taxation to aid the poor
Ended the clerical monopoly on education
New newspapers were started up
Catholicism became the official religion of the republic
Urged Rome, Piedmont, Florence, and Venice to work together to defeat Austria
In March 1849, Charles Albert re-entered the war but was defeated at the battle of Novara, leading him to abdicate in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel II.
Meanwhile, in Tuscany, workers in the cities started agitating about pay and conditions, while middle-class radicals started promoting republicanism. The Grand Duke left in 1849 for Naples, leading the revolutionaries to set up a provisional government and a dictator in preparation to proclaim a republic (presumably without the dictator). However, Charles Albert was defeated at Novara before the republic could be declared, letting Austrians go into Tuscany to crush the revolution and restore the Grand Duke. Similar events happened in Modena and Parma, restoring all the rulers.
Overall, the revolutions failed totally due to similar reasons as those in 1820 and 1831; lack of unity between revolting states, lack of unity within revolutionaries (liberals vs. radicals), lack of popular support due to liberal elitist beliefs and little change in material conditions for working people, and a lack of international allies. Due to the events of 1848 and 1849, however, revolutionary and nationalist feelings were strengthened, while in Piedmont the Statuto remained and allowed for further developments.

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