16 mai 1916 - Sykes–Picot Agreement

Description:

The Sykes–Picot Agreement, a clandestine treaty from 1916, stands as a pivotal moment in the history of the Middle East, embodying the geopolitical machinations of the United Kingdom and France during World War I. With tacit approval from the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy, the agreement aimed to delineate their anticipated spheres of influence in the event of an Ottoman Empire partition.

Negotiated between November 23, 1915, and January 3, 1916, by British diplomat Mark Sykes and French counterpart François Georges-Picot, the agreement received formal ratification from their governments on May 9 and 16, 1916, respectively. It aimed to carve out distinct zones of control and influence for Britain and France, encompassing territories beyond the Arabian Peninsula.

The accord allocated areas of British dominion, including present-day southern Israel and Palestine, Jordan, southern Iraq, and sections of Haifa and Acre for Mediterranean access. France, in turn, was to govern southeastern Turkey, the Kurdistan Region, Syria, and Lebanon.

Russia, through the concurrent Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement, was promised Western Armenia alongside Constantinople and the Turkish Straits. Italy, via the Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne in 1917, was granted southern Anatolia.

The aftermath of the agreement shaped subsequent events, notably the 1918 Anglo–French Modus Vivendi, which influenced the post-war partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. This led to mandates in the Levant and Mesopotamia, formalized at the 1920 San Remo conference. However, the aspirations outlined in the Sykes–Picot Agreement were hindered by the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) and the subsequent Treaty of Lausanne.

Critically, the agreement incited widespread resentment, particularly among Arabs who felt betrayed by broken promises of independence. Its exposure by Bolsheviks in 1917 further exacerbated tensions, causing embarrassment for Britain, dismay among Arabs, and satisfaction for the Turks.

The Sykes–Picot Agreement epitomizes the complexities of imperialist ambitions and their enduring legacy, fueling decades of geopolitical strife in the Middle East.

Negotiations and Agreement: Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot, representing the UK and France respectively, engaged in negotiations over the division of Ottoman territories. They reached an agreement on January 3, 1916, which became known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement.

Division of Territories: The agreement proposed dividing the Ottoman territories into spheres of influence, with specific areas assigned to each power. For example, the Mosul Vilayet was divided between the UK and France, with the northern part going to France and the southern part to the UK. Palestine was to be placed under international administration.

Formalization and Ratification: The agreement was formalized and ratified through a series of diplomatic exchanges between the British, French, and Russian governments. Eventually, the final terms were agreed upon and ratified in May 1916.

Italian Participation: Italy's participation in the war led to the Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne in April 1917, which settled Italian interests in the Ottoman Empire. However, Russia's lack of consent to this agreement led to its invalidation by the British at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.

Public Disclosure and Reactions: The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia led to the disclosure of secret agreements, including the Sykes-Picot Agreement, causing embarrassment to the Allies. The revelation of the agreement contributed to growing distrust between the Allies and the Arab population, as it conflicted with promises of self-determination made to them.

Post-war Developments: After the war, various events, including the Balfour Declaration and the Anglo-French Declaration, reshaped the political landscape in the Middle East. The British and French governments pledged to support indigenous governments and administrations in the region, moving away from the terms of the Sykes-Picot Agreement.

Modification of Territories: The territorial dispute known as the Mosul Question arose after the Armistice of Mudros in 1918, leading to negotiations between David Lloyd George and Georges Clemenceau. France relinquished its rights to Mosul and Palestine, with the UK promising support for French claims in exchange for other considerations.

Overall, the Sykes-Picot Agreement played a significant role in shaping the post-World War I political landscape in the Middle East, though its terms and implications were subject to subsequent negotiations and modifications.

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