1 janv. 1551 - Italian War of Independence

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On March 31, 1547, King Francis I died and was succeeded by his son, Henry II of France. In 1551, Henry II declared war against Charles with the intent of recapturing Italy and ensuring French, rather than Habsburg, domination of European affairs. An early French offensive against Lorraine was successful, but the attempted French invasion of Tuscany was stopped in 1553. The French were decisively defeated at the Battle of Marciano on August 2, 1554. Nonetheless, as a result of this war, France obtained three French-speaking cities: Metz, Toul and Verdun. Furthermore, the alliance with the Ottomans had reached its peak under Henri II of France with the Invasion of Corsica (1553)

In 1556, during the course of the war, Charles V abdicated the Imperial throne as well as the throne of Spain. He abdicated the Imperial throne of the Holy Roman Empire to his brother, who became Ferdinand I of the Holy Roman Empire. The throne of Spain went to Charles' son, who became Philip II of Spain. Thus, the abdication of Charles V split the Habsburg empire that had surrounded France. From this point on, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire would no longer act in absolute coordination as they had under the personal union of Charles V. Gradually, the two Habsburg entities would drift off separately in their own directions following their own divergent interests.

At this point the focus of the war shifted away from Italy and toward Flanders, where Philip, in conjunction with Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy, decisively defeated the French at St. Quentin on August 10, 1557. Following the defeat at St. Quentin, the French did recover and took some new initiatives in the war. England's entry into the war in 1557 led to the French capture of Calais in January 1558. Furthermore, France plundered Habsburg positions in the Netherlands. The wars ended with the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, which was signed on April 3, 1559.

The Peace of Cateau-Cambrèsis (1559) involved delegates from France, Spain, England, and the Holy Roman Empire.[74] The general clause of the Peace made the participants recognize the results of the last eight years of war. Besides ending the war, Henri II of France and Philip II of Spain agreed in the treaty to ask the Pope to recognize Ferdinand as Holy Roman Emperor and to reconvene the Council of Trent.

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